TWI497809B - Heterogeneous hydrogen-catalyst reactor - Google Patents

Description

Non-homogeneous hydrogen catalyst reactor

The present invention is directed to a catalyst system comprising a hydrogen catalyst capable of causing atomic hydrogen in the n = 1 state to form a lower energy state, an atomic hydrogen source, and other species capable of initiating and expanding the reaction to form lower energy hydrogen. In certain embodiments, the present invention is directed to a reaction mixture comprising at least one source of atomic hydrogen and a catalyst or catalyst source that promotes hydrogen catalysis to form a low energy hydrino. The reactants and reactions of the solid and liquid fuels disclosed herein are also reactants and reactions of non-homogeneous fuels comprising a mixture of phases. The reaction mixture comprises at least two components selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen catalyst or a hydrogen catalyst source and an atomic hydrogen source, wherein at least one of the atomic hydrogen and the hydrogen catalyst can be formed by the reaction of the reaction mixture. In other embodiments, the reaction mixture further comprises a carrier that can have electrical conductivity in certain embodiments, a solvent including a molten salt such as an organic solvent or an inorganic solvent, a getter, and at least one catalytic activation due to the reaction. Reactant.

The reaction to form low energy hydrogen can be activated or initiated by one or more chemical reactions. Such reactions may be selected from the group consisting of: (i) an exothermic reaction that provides activation energy for a low energy hydrogen reaction; (ii) a coupling reaction that provides at least one of a catalyst source or an atomic hydrogen source to maintain a low energy hydrogen reaction; (iii) a free radical reaction, in some embodiments, as a acceptor for electrons from the catalyst during a low energy hydrogen reaction; (iv) a redox reaction, in some embodiments, in a low energy hydrogen (v) an exchange reaction, such as anion exchange, including halide, sulfur, hydrogen, arsenic, oxygen, phosphorus, and nitrogen ion exchange, in one embodiment, in an embodiment The exchange reaction promotes ionization of the catalyst to form low energy hydrogen when the catalyst receives energy from atomic hydrogen; and (vi) a getter, carrier or matrix assisted low energy hydrogen reaction that provides at least a low energy hydrogen reaction A chemical environment used to transfer electrons to promote H catalyst function, undergo reversible or other physical changes or changes in their electronic states, and combine lower energy hydrogen products to increase low energy hydrogen reactions The degree or rate of at least one. In certain embodiments, the electrically conductive carrier initiates an activation reaction.

In other embodiments, the invention is directed to a power system comprising at least two components selected from the group consisting of a catalyst source or catalyst; an atomic hydrogen source or atomic hydrogen; a reaction to form a catalyst source or catalyst and an atomic hydrogen source or atomic hydrogen; And one or more reactants which initiate atomic hydrogen catalysis; and a carrier for starting the catalyst, wherein the power system may further comprise any one of the following: a reaction vessel, a vacuum pump, a power converter, and such as a separator system, an electrolyzer, A system for reversing the thermal system of the exchange reaction and the chemical synthesis reactor for regenerating the fuel from the reaction product.

In other embodiments, the invention is directed to a system for forming a compound having lower energy hydrogen, comprising at least two components selected from the group consisting of: a catalyst source or a catalyst; an atomic hydrogen source or atomic hydrogen; forming a catalyst source Or a catalyst and an atomic hydrogen source or an atomic hydrogen reactant; one or more reactants which initiate atomic hydrogen catalysis; and a carrier for starting the catalyst, wherein the system for forming a compound having a lower energy state hydrogen may further comprise any of the following : a reaction vessel, a vacuum pump, and a system such as a separator system, an electrolyzer, a thermal system for reversing the exchange reaction, and a chemical synthesis reactor for regenerating fuel from the reaction product.

Other embodiments of the present invention are directed to a battery or fuel cell system for forming a compound having lower energy hydrogen, comprising at least two components selected from the group consisting of: a catalyst source or a catalyst; an atomic hydrogen source or atomic hydrogen; a reactant that forms a catalyst source or catalyst and an atomic hydrogen source or atomic hydrogen; one or more reactants that initiate atomic hydrogen catalysis; and a carrier that initiates the catalyst, wherein the battery or fuel used to form the compound having lower energy hydrogen The battery system may further comprise any one of the following: a reaction vessel, a vacuum pump, and a system such as a separator system, an electrolyzer, a thermal system for reversing the exchange reaction, and a chemical synthesis reactor for regenerating the fuel from the reaction product.

The present invention is directed to a catalyst system that releases energy from atomic hydrogen to form a lower energy state in which the electron shell is in a relatively close position relative to the nucleus. The energy released is used to generate power and additional new hydrogen species and compounds are the desired products. These energy states are predicted by classical physical laws and require the catalyst to accept energy from hydrogen to undergo a corresponding energy release transfer.

A closed form solution of a hydrogen atom, a hydrogen anion, a hydrogen molecular ion, and a hydrogen molecule, as shown by classical physics, and predicting a corresponding substance having a fractional main quantum number. Using the Maxwell's equation, the electronic structure is derived as a boundary value problem, where the electron contains the source current of the electromagnetic field that changes with time during the transition, which is limited by the n = 1 state electron unemitting energy. The reaction predicted by the H atom solution involves the transfer of resonance, non-radiative energy from an otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to a catalyst capable of accepting this energy, thereby forming a hydrogen having a lower energy state than previously thought possible. In particular, classical physics predicts that atomic hydrogen can be catalyzed by certain atoms, excimers, ions, and diatomic hydrides that provide a net reaction of an integral multiple of the atomic hydrogen potential, E _h =27.2 eV , where E _h is a Hartree. Specific materials (e.g., He ⁺ , Ar ⁺ , Sr ⁺ , K , Li , HCl , and NaH ) are required to be present along with the atomic hydrogen to catalyze the process, and such materials can be identified based on their known electronic energy levels. The reaction involves non-radiative energy transfer followed by a q ‧13.6 eV continuum emission or q ‧13.6 eV transfer to H to form a very hot excited state H and a lower hydrogen atom corresponding to the fractional main quantum number than the unreacted atomic hydrogen . That is, in the formula of the main energy level of a hydrogen atom:

n =1,2,3,... (2)

Where a _H is the Bohr radius of the hydrogen atom (52.947 pm), e is the electron charge, and ε ₀ is the vacuum permittivity, fractional quantum number:

Instead of the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states and representing a lower energy hydrogen atom, it is called "low energy hydrogen". Although hydrogen n = 1 state and hydrogen The state is non-radiative, but transfer between two non-radiative states may be achieved via non-radiative energy transfer (eg, n = 1 to n = 1/2). Hydrogen is a special case of the steady state shown by equations (1) and (3), wherein the corresponding radius of hydrogen or low-energy hydrogen atoms is as follows:

Where p =1, 2, 3, .... In order to conserve energy, energy must be transferred from the hydrogen atom to the catalyst in integer units of the normal n =1 state hydrogen atom, and the radius is converted into . Low-energy hydrogen is formed by the reaction of a common hydrogen atom with a suitable catalyst having the following net reaction enthalpy

m ‧27.2 eV (5)

Where m is an integer. The catalytic rate increases when the net reaction 焓 is more closely matched to m ‧27.2 eV . Catalysts having a net reaction enthalpy within m ‧27.2 eV ±10%, preferably ±5%, have been found to be suitable for most applications.

The catalyst reaction involves two energy release steps: non-radiative energy is transferred to the catalyst, followed by additional energy release as the radius is reduced to the corresponding stable final state. Therefore, the general response is as follows:

Cat ^{( q + r )+} + re ^- → Cat ^{q +} + m ‧27.2 eV and (8)

The total response is

q , r , m and p are integers. Has a hydrogen atomic radius (corresponding to 1 in the denominator) and a spherical magnetic field equal to ( m + p ) times the proton spherical electric field, and For a radius of H radius Corresponding steady state. When electrons are from hydrogen atom radius to When the radius of this distance is accelerated radially, the energy is released in the form of characteristic light emission or third body kinetic energy. Launch can have The lower boundary and extends to the longer wavelengths of the far ultraviolet continuous radiation form. In addition to radiation, a common vibrational energy transfer can occur to form a fast H. The fast H ( n =1) atoms are then excited by collision with the background H ₂ , followed by the corresponding H ( n = 3) fast atomic emission, resulting in a broadened Balmer α emission. A significant balmer alpha line broadening (>100 eV) consistent with the prediction was observed.

Therefore, a suitable catalyst can provide a net reaction of m ‧27.2 eV . That is, the catalyst resonance accepts non-radiative energy transfer from the hydrogen atoms and releases the energy to the surroundings to effect electronic transition to fractional quantum energy levels. Due to the non-radiative energy transfer, the hydrogen atoms become unstable and further emit energy until they reach a lower energy non-radiative state having the main energy levels shown by equations (1) and (3). Therefore, the catalysis of the release of energy from the hydrogen atom is accompanied by a corresponding decrease in the hydrogen atom size r _n = na _H , where n is represented by the equation (3). For example, the catalytic release of H ( n =1) to H ( n = 1/4) is 204 eV, and the hydrogen radius is reduced from a _H to . The catalyst product H (1/ p ) can also react with electrons to form a low-energy hydrino hydride H ^- (1/ p ), or two H (1/ p ) can react to form a corresponding molecule of low-energy hydrogen H ₂ (1/ p ).

In particular, the catalytic product H (1/ p ) can also react with electrons to form a novel hydrogen anion H ^- (1/ p ) with a binding energy E _B :

Wherein p = an integer> 1, s = 1/2 , To reduce the Planck's constant bar, μ ₀ is the vacuum permeability, m _e is the electron mass, and μ _e is the The low electron mass shown, where m _p is the proton mass, a ₀ is the radius of the wave, and the ionic radius is . From equation (10), the ionization energy of the hydride ion was calculated to be 0.75418 eV , and the experimental value was 6082.99 ± 0.15 cm ^-1 (0.75418 eV).

The NMR peak shifted to a high magnetic field is a direct evidence of the presence of a lower energy state hydrogen with a reduced radius relative to the normal hydride anion and increased proton diamagnetic shielding. The displacement is shown by the sum of the displacement of the ordinary hydrogen anion H ^- and the component attributed to the lower energy state:

Wherein, for H ^- , p = 0, and for H ^- (1/ p ), p = integer > 1 and α is a fine structure constant.

H (1/ p ) can react with protons and two H (1/ p ) can react to form H ₂ (1/ p ) ⁺ and H ₂ (1/ p ), respectively. Under the constraint of no radiation, the Laplacian operator (Laplacian) solves the hydrogen molecular ion and molecular charge and current density function, bond distance and energy.

The total energy E _T of the hydrogen molecular ion having a spherical electric field of + pe at each focus of the long-sphere molecular orbital is

Where p is an integer, c is the speed of light in vacuum, and μ is the reduced nuclear mass. The total energy of a hydrogen molecule having a spherical electric field of + pe at each focus of the long-sphere molecular orbital is

The bond dissociation energy E _D of the hydrogen molecule H ₂ (1/ p ) is the difference between the total energy of the corresponding hydrogen atom and E _T

E _D = E (2 H (1/ p ))- E _T (15)

among them

E (2 H (1/ p ))=- p ² 27.20 eV (16)

E _{D is shown} by equations (15-16) and (14):

The NMR of the catalytic product gas provides a clear test of the theoretically predicted H ₂ (1/4) chemical shift. In general, the ¹ H NMR resonance of H ₂ (1/ p ) is predicted to be a high magnetic field at ¹ H NMR resonance of H ₂ due to the fractional radius in the elliptical coordinates, where the electrons are significantly closer to the nucleus. Displacement predicted for H ₂ (1/ p ) The sum of the terms of H ₂ displacement and H ₂ (1/ p ) depends on p = integer > 1:

Wherein for H ₂ , p =0. The experimental absolute H ₂ gas phase resonance shift of -28.0 ppm is in good agreement with the predicted absolute gas phase shift of -28.01 ppm (equation (19)).

The vibration energy E _vib of the hydrogen type molecule H ₂ (1/ p ) from υ = 0 to υ = 1 is

E _vib = p ² 0.515902 eV (20)

Where p is an integer. The rotational energy E _rot of the hydrogen type molecule H ₂ (1/ p ) from J to J +1 is

Where p is an integer and I is the moment of inertia.

The p ² dependence of the rotational energy is produced by the reciprocal p-dependence of the nuclear spacing and the corresponding effect on the moment of inertia I. Predicting the nuclear spacing 2 c ' of H ₂ (1/ p ) is

Data from many research techniques strongly and consistently indicate that hydrogen can exist in a state of energy that is lower than previously thought possible. This data demonstrates the existence of the lower energy states of the "small hydrogen" referred to as low-energy hydrogen and the presence of corresponding hydrogen anions and low-energy hydrogen. Some previous related studies have demonstrated the possibility of generating novel atomic hydrogen reactions in the fractional quantum states of energy lower than the traditional "base" ( n = 1) state, including far ultraviolet (EUV) spectroscopy, from catalysts and Characteristic emission of hydrogen anion product, lower energy hydrogen emission, chemically formed plasma, balm alpha line broadening, H line particle number inversion, elevated electron temperature, irregular plasma afterglow duration, power generation And analysis of novel compounds.

The catalytic lower energy hydrogen transition of the present invention requires a catalyst which can take the form of an integral m endothermic chemical reaction having an uncatalyzed atomic hydrogen potential of 27.2 eV , accepting energy from atom H to cause a transition. The endothermic catalyst reaction may ionize one or more electrons from a substance such as an atom or an ion (for example, m = 3 for Li → Li ²⁺ ), and may further comprise a bond splitting and one or more electrons from one Or a synergistic reaction of multiple initial bond-forming ligands (eg, m = 2 for NaH → Na ²⁺ + H ). He ⁺ satisfies the catalyst standard - the chemical or physical process of enthalpy equal to an integral multiple of 27.2 eV because it ionizes at 54.417 eV (2.27.2 eV ). Two hydrogen atoms can also be used as the catalyst having the same enthalpy. The hydrogen atom H (1/ p ) p =1, 2, 3, ... 137 can further transition to the lower energy states shown by equations (1) and (3), where one atom transitions by resonance and non-radiation The ground accepts m ‧27.2 eV and the accompanying potential can be catalyzed by the second atom. The entire general equation for the H (1/ p ) transition to H (1/( p + m )) induced by m ‧27.2 eV resonance to H (1/ p' ) is represented by the following equation:

H (1 / p ') + H (1 / p) → H + H (1 / (p + m)) + [2 pm + m 2 - p' 2 +1] ‧13.6 eV. (twenty three)

A hydrogen atom can be used as a catalyst in which m = 1 and m = 2, respectively, for one or two atoms, acting as a catalyst for the other. When very fast H collides with the molecules to form 2 H , the rate of the two-atom catalyst 2 H can be high, wherein the two atoms resonate and non-radiatively accept 54.4 eV from the third hydrogen atom of the collision pair.

At m = 2, the product of the catalysts He ⁺ and 2 H is H (1/3), which reacts rapidly to form H (1/4), followed by formation of molecular low-energy hydrogen H ₂ (1/4). status. Specifically, under the condition of high hydrogen atom concentration, H (1/3) ( p = 3) shown by equation (23) further transitions to H (1/4) ( p + m = 4) at H. as the catalyst; under (p '= 1 m = 1 ) can be fast:

Consistent with the observations, the corresponding molecules low-energy hydrogen H ₂ (1/4) and low-energy hydrino hydride H ^- (1/4) are the final products, because the p = 4 quantum states have more than four polarities, making H (1/4) has a long theoretical lifetime for further catalysis.

It is predicted that the non-radiative energy is transferred to the catalysts He ⁺ and 2 H to charge the He ⁺ ion energy level in the helium-hydrogen and hydrogen plasma, respectively, and increase the electron excitation temperature of H. For both catalysts, intermediates (Equation (6), m = 2) has a hydrogen atom radius (corresponding to 1 in the denominator) and a spherical electric field equal to 3 times the proton spherical electric field, and It is the corresponding steady state with a radius of 1/3 of the radius H. When the electrons are radially accelerated from the radius of the hydrogen atom to a radius of 1/3 of this distance, the energy is released by the characteristic light emission or the third body kinetic energy. The emission can be in the form of far ultraviolet continuous radiation having a boundary of 54.4 eV (22.8 nm) and extending to longer wavelengths. The emission can be in the form of far ultraviolet continuous radiation having a boundary of 54.4 eV (22.8 nm) and extending to longer wavelengths. Or, it is predicted to have a fast H due to the transfer of the common vibration energy. Prediction of the second continuum band from subsequent catalytic products (Equation (4-7) and (23)) quickly jump to State (where atomic hydrogen accepts Produced by 27.2 eV ). Ultra-ultraviolet (EUV) spectroscopy and high-resolution visible spectroscopy were recorded for microwave and glow and pulsed release of helium-hydrogen and hydrogen alone to provide catalysts He ⁺ and 2H , respectively. The charge of He ⁺ ion line occurs with the addition of hydrogen, and the excitation temperature of the hydrogen plasma is extremely high under certain conditions. An EUV continuum at 22.8 nm and 40.8 nm was observed, and a significant (>50 eV) Barley alpha line broadening was observed. H ₂ (1/4) was observed by solution NMR at 1.25 ppm on a gas collected from hydrazine-hydrogen, hydrogen and water vapor-assisted hydrogen plasma and dissolved in CDCl ₃ .

Similarly, the reaction of Ar ⁺ to Ar ²⁺ has a net reaction enthalpy of 27.63 eV , which corresponds to m =1 in the equation (4-7). When Ar ^{+ was} used as a catalyst, the predicted 91.2 nm and 45.6 nm continuum and other signatures were observed: low energy hydrogen transition, charge to the excited state of the catalyst, fast H, and observed by solution NMR at 1.25 ppm. The predicted low energy hydrogen product H ₂ (1/4). Taking into account these results and the results of the tantalum plasma, it is observed that for He ⁺ catalysts, the threshold is 54.5 eV ( q = 4) and 40.8 eV ( q = 3) and for the Ar ⁺ catalyst, the threshold is 27.2 eV ( q = 2) and q ‧13.6 eV continuum at 13.6 eV ( q =1). In the case of low energy hydrogen transitions to lower energy states, resulting in high energy continuous radiation over a wide spectral range, there may be a much higher q value.

In recent studies power generation and characterization of the product, the lithium atoms in the molecule and NaH as a catalyst, this catalyst system since it meets standards, i.e., the enthalpy change is equal to the potential energy of atomic hydrogen integer times m 27.2 eV of chemical or physical processes (e.g. , for Li , m = 3; and for NaH , m = 2). The corresponding low-energy hydrino hydride H ^- (1/4) and molecules based on the novel base halogenated low-energy hydrogen hydride compound ( MH * X ; M = Li or Na , X = halogen ) were tested using a chemically generated catalytic reactant. A specific prediction of the closed form equation of the low energy hydrogen H ₂ (1/4) energy level.

First, the Li catalyst was tested. Li and LiNH _{2 are} used as a source of atomic lithium and hydrogen atoms. Using a water flow batch calorimetry, the measured power of 1 g Li , 0.5 g LiNH ₂ , 10 g LiBr, and 15 g Pd / Al ₂ O ₃ was about 160 W, and the energy balance ΔH = -19.1 kJ . The observed energy balance is 4.4 times the maximum theoretical value of known chemistry. Next, when a kinetic reaction mixture is used in chemical synthesis, Raney nickel (R-Ni) is used as a dissociator, wherein LiBr is used as a getter for the catalytic product H (1/4) to form LiH. * X and capture H ₂ (1/4) in the crystal. ToF-SIM displays the LiH * X peak. And LiH * Br LiH * I ¹ H MAS NMR of LiX matrix display and H ^- (1/4) approximately matching the unique high -2.5ppm huge magnetic resonance. H ₂ (1/4) NMR peaks match with a gap under the 1.13ppm, observed at 1989 cm ^-1 and the H ₂ to the normal to rotate ⁴² times the rotation frequency of H ₂ (1/4) frequency in the FTIR spectrum. The XPS spectra recorded on the LiH * Br crystals show peaks at about 9.5 eV and 12.3 eV, based on the lack of any other major elemental peaks, which are not attributable to any known elements, but which are compatible with H in both chemical environments. ^- The combination of (1/4) matches. Another indication of the high-energy process is the observation that when the atom Li is present along with the atomic hydrogen at low temperatures (for example, And a plasma called a resonance transfer plasma or an rt plasma is formed at an extremely low electric field strength of about 1-2 V/cm. The time-dependent spectral broadening (>40 eV) of the H- Barley alpha line corresponding to the very fast H was observed.

Such as MH to include hydrogen other than hydrogen and at least one compound of the present invention is used as the element M forming a hydrogen source and a catalyst of low energy source of hydrogen. The MH bond cleavage plus t electrons are each ionized from the atom M to a continuous energy level such that the sum of the bond energy and the ionization energy of the t electrons is about m ‧27.2 eV (where m is an integer) to provide a catalytic reaction. One such catalytic system comprises sodium. The NaH bond energy is 1.9245 eV , and the first and second ionization energies of Na are 5.13908 eV and 47.2864 eV, respectively . Based on this energy, the NaH molecule can be used as a catalyst source and a hydrogen source because the NaH bond plus Na to Na ^{2 +} secondary ionization ( t = 2) is 54.35 eV (2.27.2 eV ). The catalyst reaction is as follows:

Na ^{2 +} +2 e ^- + H → NaH +54.35 eV (26)

And the total response is

The product H (1/3) reacts rapidly to form H (1/4), followed by formation of a molecular low-energy hydrogen H ₂ (1/4), as a preferred state (Equation (24)). The NaH catalyst reaction can be a synergistic reaction because the sum of the NaH bond energy, the second ionization of Na to Na ^{2 +} ( t = 2), and the H site energy is 81.56 eV (3.27.2 eV ). The catalyst reaction is as follows:

And the total response is

Wherein H ⁺ _fast is a fast hydrogen atom having a kinetic energy of at least 13.6 eV. H ^- (1/4) to form a stable hydride and the halide from the reaction _{2 H (1/4) → H 2} (1/4) and ^{H - (1/4) + H +} → H 2 (1/4) The corresponding molecules formed together are advantageous products.

Sodium hydride is typically in the form of an ionic crystalline compound formed by the reaction of gaseous hydrogen with sodium metal. And, in the gaseous state, comprising sodium Na ₂ molecule having 74.8048kJ / mol of covalent bond energy. It was found that when NaH ( s ) was heated at a very slow heating rate (0.1 °C/min) under a helium atmosphere to form NaH ( g ), it was observed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) at a high temperature by equation (25- 27) The predicted exothermic reaction shown. To achieve high power, a chemical system is designed that greatly increases the amount and rate of NaH ( g ) formation. The reaction of NaOH generated from the generation of heat and Na to Na ₂ O and NaH ( s ) releases Δ H = -44.7 kJ / mol NaOH :

_{NaOH +2 Na → Na 2 O +} NaH (s) Δ H = -44.7 kJ / mole NaOH. (31)

This exothermic reaction can be derived from the formation of NaH ( g ) and used to derive the complete exothermic reaction as shown by equation (25-27). The regeneration reaction in the presence of atomic hydrogen is

Na ₂ O + H → NaOH + Na Δ H = -11.6 kJ / mole NaOH (32)

NaH → Na + H (1/3) Δ H = -10,500 kJ / mole H (33)

and

NaH → Na + H (1/4) Δ H = -19,700 kJ / mole H (34)

NaH in a unique way to achieve high dynamics, since the catalytic reaction of H depends on the inherent release, which simultaneously transitions form inherently H H (1/3), is further reacted to form H (1/4). High temperature differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was performed on the ionized NaH at a very slow heating rate (0.1 °C/min) under a helium atmosphere to increase the amount of molecular NaH formation. A novel exothermic effect of -177 kJ/mol NaH was observed in the temperature range of 640 ° C to 825 ° C. To achieve high power, the surface of R-Ni having a surface area of about 100 m ³ / g is coated with NaOH and reacted with Na metal to form NaH . Using a water flow batch calorimetry, when reacted with Na metal, the measured power from 15 g R-Ni is about 0.5 kW, the energy balance is ΔH = -36 kJ , and the energy from the R-Ni starting material R-NiAl alloy. Balanced to . The observed NaH reaction energy balance was -1.6 × 10 ⁴ kJ/mol H ₂ , which exceeded the -241.8 kJ/mol H ₂ combustion enthalpy 66 times. In the case where the NaOH doping is increased to 0.5 wt%, the Al- substituted Na metal is used as a reducing agent to form a NaH catalyst. When heated to 60 ° C, 15 g of the composite catalyst material did not require additives to release 11.7 kJ of excess energy and produce 0.25 kW of power. The solution NMR of the product gas dissolved in DMF-d7 showed H ₂ (1/4) at 1.2 ppm.

ToF-SIM displays low energy sodium hydride NaH _x peaks. The ¹ H MAS NMR spectrum of NaH * Br and NaH * Cl shows a huge unique high magnetic field resonance with H ^- (1/4) at -3.6 ppm and -4 ppm, respectively, and H ₂ (1/4) at 1.1 ppm. Matched NMR peaks. NaCl from the reaction with a solid acid KHSO _4, the hydrogen as the sole source of NaH * Cl comprising two hydrino states. An H ^- (1/4) NMR peak was observed at -3.77 ppm, and the H ^- (1/3) peak was also present at -3.15 ppm. The corresponding H ₂ (1/4) and H ₂ (1/3) peaks were observed at 1.15 ppm and 1.7 ppm, respectively. ¹ H NMR of NaH* F dissolved in DMF-d7 showed separation of H ₂ (1/4) and H ^- (1/4) at 1.2 ppm and -3.66 ppm, respectively, with any lack of solid matrix effect or It is possible to substitute the distribution to confirm the solid NMR assignment. XPS NaH * Br of the recording of the spectrum appear at about 9.5eV and 12.3eV match the result of the LiH * Br and KH * I of H ^- (1/4) peak; however, show a low energy in the absence of sodium hydride halide In the case of the peak, there are two additional hydrino states of the H ^- (1/3) XPS peak at 6 eV. 12.5keV grouped using the ordinary electron beam excitation energy ⁴² H ₂ H ₂ times the prediction (1/4) observed energy of rotational transitions.

Such materials as NMR shift, ToF-SIM mass, XPS binding energy, FTIR and emission spectra characterize and identify low energy hydrogen products comprising a catalyst system of one aspect of the invention.

I. Low energy hydrogen

a hydrogen atom having a binding energy as shown below

(wherein p is an integer greater than 1, preferably 2 to 137) is the H catalytic reaction product of the present invention. The binding energy (also known as ionization energy) of an atom, ion or molecule is the energy necessary to remove an electron from that atom, ion or molecule. The hydrogen atom having the binding energy shown in the equation (35) is hereinafter referred to as "low-energy hydrogen atom" or "low-energy hydrogen". With radius The name of the low-energy hydrogen (where a _H is the radius of a common hydrogen atom and p is an integer) is . A hydrogen atom having a radius a _H is hereinafter referred to as "ordinary hydrogen atom" or "general hydrogen atom". Ordinary atomic hydrogen is characterized by its binding energy of 13.6 eV.

Low-energy hydrogen is formed by the reaction of a common hydrogen atom with a suitable catalyst having the following net reaction enthalpy

m ‧27.2 eV (36)

Where m is an integer. The catalytic rate increases when the net reaction 焓 is more closely matched to m ‧27.2 eV . Catalysts with a net reaction enthalpy of m ‧27.2 eV ±10%, preferably ±5% have been found to be suitable for most applications.

This catalysis releases energy from the hydrogen atoms with a corresponding decrease in hydrogen atom size r _n = na _H . For example, catalyzing H ( n =1) to H ( n = 1/2) releases 40.8 eV and the hydrogen radius is reduced from a _H to . The catalytic system is provided by ionizing each of the t electrons from the atom to a continuous energy level such that the sum of the t electron energies is about m ‧27.2 eV (where m is an integer).

Another example of such catalytic systems as shown above (Equation (6-9)) comprises metallic lithium. The first and second ionization energies of lithium are 5.391172 eV and 75.64018 eV, respectively . Thus the secondary ionization ( t = 2) reaction of Li to Li ²⁺ has a net reaction enthalpy of 81.0319 eV , which corresponds to m = 3 in equation (36).

Li ²⁺ +2 e ^- → L i ( m )+81.0319 eV (38)

And the total response is

In another embodiment, the catalytic system comprises ruthenium. The first and second ionization energies of the crucible are 3.89390 eV and 23.15745 eV, respectively . Thus the second ionization ( t = 2) reaction of Cs to Cs ²⁺ has a net reaction enthalpy of 27.05135 eV , which corresponds to m =1 in equation (36).

Cs ²⁺ +2e ^- → Cs ( m )+27.05135 eV (41)

And the total response is

Another catalytic system contains potassium metal. The first, second and third ionization energies of potassium are 4.34406 eV , 31.63 eV and 45.806 eV , respectively. Thus the three ionization ( t = 3) reaction of K to K ³⁺ has a net reaction enthalpy of 81.7767 eV , which corresponds to m = 3 in equation (36).

K ³⁺ +3 e ^- → K ( m )+81.7426 eV (44)

And the total response is

As a power source, the energy released during the catalysis is much greater than the energy lost by the supply of the catalyst. The energy released is enormous compared to conventional chemical reactions. For example, when hydrogen and oxygen are burned to form water

It is known that the formation of water is Δ H _f = -286 kJ / mol or 1.48 eV per hydrogen atom. In contrast, each of the ( n = 1) ordinary hydrogen atoms catalyzed releases a net enthalpy of 40.8 eV . In addition, further catalytic transitions can occur: ,Wait. Once the catalysis begins, the low energy hydrogen is further autocatalyzed in a process known as disproportionation. This mechanism is similar to the disproportionation of inorganic ion catalysis. However, due to better match the enthalpy m‧27.2 eV, the hydrogen catalytic reaction rate is higher than the low energy inorganic ion catalyst.

The low energy hydrino hydride anion of the present invention can be made from an electron source with low energy hydrogen (ie, having about The binding energy of a hydrogen atom, of which And p is an integer greater than 1) to form a reaction. Low-energy hydrino hydrides are represented by H ^- ( n =1/ p ) or H ^- (1/ p ):

The low energy hydrino hydride is different from the conventional hydride anion comprising a common hydrogen nucleus and two electrons having a binding energy of about 0.8 eV. The latter is hereinafter referred to as "ordinary hydrogen anion" or "general hydrogen anion". The low energy hydrino hydride ion comprises a hydrogen nucleus comprising ruthenium, osmium or iridium and two indistinguishable electrons at a binding energy according to equation (49-50).

The binding energy of low-energy hydrino hydrides can be expressed by the following formula:

Where p is an integer greater than 1, s = 1/2, is the pi, To approximate the langk constant, μ ₀ is the vacuum permeability, m _e is the electron mass, and μ _e is the The low electron mass shown, where m _p is the proton mass, a _H is the hydrogen atom radius, a ₀ is the Boolean radius, and e is the base charge. The radius is as shown below

With p becomes low energy hydrogen hydride ions ^{H - (n = 1 / p} ) of the binding energy are shown in Table 1, wherein p is an integer.

Table 1. p becomes the low energy hydrogen with hydride ions ^{H - (n = 1 / p} ) representative of the binding energy, the equation (49)

According to the present invention, there is provided a low energy hydrino hydride (H ^- ) having a binding energy according to the equation (49-50), which is greater than the ordinary hydride anion binding energy (about 0.75 eV) at p = 2 to 23 and When p = 24 (H ^- ), it is smaller than the ordinary hydrogen anion binding energy. For p = 2 to p = 24 in equation (49-50), the hydride anion binding energies are 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, respectively. 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3 and 0.69 eV. Exemplary compositions comprising the novel hydrogen anion are also provided herein.

Exemplary compounds comprising one or more low energy hydrino hydride anions and one or more other elements are also provided. Such compounds are referred to as "low energy hydrogen hydride compounds."

Ordinary hydrogen species are characterized by the following binding energies: (a) hydride anion, 0.754 eV ("ordinary hydride anion"); (b) hydrogen atom ("ordinary hydrogen atom"), 13.6 eV; (c) diatomic hydrogen molecule, 15.3 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecule"); (d) hydrogen molecular ion, 16.3 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecular ion"); and (e) , 22.6 eV ("Ordinary trihydrogen molecular ion"). In this paper, "general" is synonymous with "ordinary" with respect to the form of hydrogen.

According to another embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a compound comprising at least one hydrogen species such as increased in binding energy: (a) having about , such as at about 0.9 to 1.1 times a hydrogen atom of a binding energy in the range, wherein p is an integer from 2 to 137; (b) has a binding energy , such as at about 0.9 to 1.1 times the binding energy a hydrogen anion ( H ^- ) in the range of binding energy, wherein p is an integer from 2 to 24; (c) (1/ p ); (d) has an approximation , such as at about 0.9 to 1.1 times Three low-energy hydrogen molecular ions with bound energy (1/ p ), where p is an integer from 2 to 137; (e) has an approximation , such as about 0.9 to 1.1 times a two-low energy hydrogen of binding energy within the range, wherein p is an integer from 2 to 137; (f) has about , such as about 0.9 to 1.1 times A two-low energy hydrogen molecular ion having a binding energy within the range, wherein p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137.

According to another embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a compound comprising at least one hydrogen species such as increased in binding energy: (a) having about

Such as about 0.9 to 1.1 times

A quantity of two low-energy hydrogen molecular ions, where p is an integer, h is a reduced gram-macron constant, m _e is the electron mass, c is the speed of light in vacuum, and μ is the reduced nuclear mass; and (b) has about

Such as about 0.9 to 1.1 times

Two low energy hydrogen molecules of total energy, where p is an integer and a ₀ is the radius of the wave.

According to one embodiment of the invention comprising a negatively charged hydrogen species having increased binding energy, the compound further comprises one or more cations, such as protons, Or ordinary .

Methods for preparing compounds comprising at least one low energy hydrino hydride anion are provided herein. These compounds are hereinafter referred to as "low energy hydrogen hydride compounds". The method comprises causing atomic hydrogen to have an The catalyst reaction of the net reaction enthalpy (where m is an integer greater than 1, preferably less than 400) produces an increase in binding energy The binding energy of a hydrogen atom, wherein p is an integer, preferably an integer of 2-137. Another catalytic product is energy. The hydrogen atom with increased binding energy can react with the electron source to produce a hydrogen anion with increased binding energy. The hydride anion which is increased in binding energy can react with one or more cations to produce a compound comprising at least one hydrogen anion having increased binding energy.

The novel novel hydrogen composition may comprise: (a) a combination of at least one neutral, positive or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen species with increased binding energy") which satisfies the following conditions: (i) the binding energy is greater than the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species The binding energy, or (ii) the binding energy is greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species. For any hydrogen species, the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy due to the combination of common hydrogen species under ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP). Stable or unobserved; or negative; and (b) at least one other element. The compound of the present invention is hereinafter referred to as "a hydrogen compound having an increased binding energy".

In the context of "other elements" means elements other than hydrogen species that can be combined with increased energy. Therefore, other elements may be ordinary hydrogen species or any element other than hydrogen. In a group of compounds, other elements and hydrogen species with increased binding energy are neutral. In another group of compounds, other elements are charged with hydrogen species with increased binding energy such that other elements provide an equilibrium charge for the formation of a neutral compound. The former group of compounds are characterized by molecules and coordinate bonds; the latter group of features are ionic bonds.

Novel compounds and molecular ions are also provided which comprise: (a) at least one neutral, positive or negative hydrogen species having a total energy (hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen species with increased binding energy"): (i) total energy Greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or (ii) the total energy is greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species. For any hydrogen species, the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable due to the total energy of the ordinary hydrogen species under ambient conditions being less than the thermal energy. Not observed; or negative; and (b) at least one other element.

The total energy of the hydrogen species is the sum of the energy of all electrons removed from the hydrogen species. The hydrogen species according to the invention have a total energy greater than the total energy of the corresponding common hydrogen species. Even though some embodiments of the total energy-increasing hydrogen species may have a first electron binding energy that is less than the first electron binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, the total energy increased hydrogen species according to the present invention is also referred to as "increase in binding energy. Hydrogen substance". For example, the hydride anion of equation (49-50) of p = 24 has a first binding energy that is less than the first binding energy of a common hydride anion, and the total hydride anion of equation (49-50) of p = 24 The energy is much greater than the total energy of the corresponding common hydrogen anion.

Also provided herein are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising: (a) a plurality of neutral, positive or negative hydrogen species having a binding energy that satisfies the following conditions (hereinafter "hydrogen species with increased binding energy") (i) binding It can be greater than the binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or (ii) the binding energy is greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species. For any hydrogen species, the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable due to the lower binding energy of common hydrogen species under ambient conditions. Not observed; or negative; and (b) another element selected as appropriate. The compound of the present invention is hereinafter referred to as "a hydrogen compound having an increased binding energy".

The binding energy-increasing hydrogen species may be composed of one or more low-energy hydrogen atoms and electrons, low-energy hydrogen atoms, a compound containing at least one of the hydrogen species added by the binding energy, and at least one other atom other than the hydrogen species having increased binding energy. One or more of the molecules or ions react to form.

Novel compounds and molecular ions are also provided which comprise: (a) a plurality of neutral, positive or negative hydrogen species having a total energy (hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen species with increased binding energy") (i) total energy greater than The total energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen, or (ii) the total energy is greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species. For any hydrogen species, the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or unobservable because the total energy of ordinary hydrogen species is less than thermal energy under ambient conditions. Or negative; and (b) another element selected as appropriate. The compound of the present invention is hereinafter referred to as "a hydrogen compound having an increased binding energy".

In one embodiment, there is provided a compound comprising at least one hydrogen species selected from the group consisting of: (a) having a binding energy to a common hydrogen anion for p = 2 to 23 according to equation (49-50) 0.8eV) a hydrogen anion having a binding energy smaller than that of a common hydrogen anion for p = 24 ("hydrogen anion with increased binding energy" or "low energy hydrogen hydride"); (b) having a larger than ordinary hydrogen a hydrogen atom that binds to an atomic binding energy (about 13.6 eV) ("a hydrogen atom with increased binding energy" or "low energy hydrogen"); (c) a hydrogen molecule having a first binding energy greater than about 15.3 eV ("combination a hydrogen molecule that can be increased or two low-energy hydrogens; and (d) a molecular hydrogen ion having a binding energy greater than about 16.3 eV ("molecular hydrogen ion with increased binding energy" or "two low-energy hydrogen molecule ion");

II. Power reactor and system

In accordance with another embodiment of the present invention, a hydrogen catalyst reactor for producing energy and lower energy hydrogen species is provided. As shown in FIG. 1, hydrogen catalyst reactor 70 includes a vessel 72 containing an energy reaction mixture 74, a heat exchanger 80, and a power converter, such as steam generator 82 and turbine 90. In one embodiment, catalyzing comprises reacting atomic hydrogen from source 76 with catalyst 78 to form a lower energy hydrogen "low energy hydrogen" and generating power. When the reaction mixture comprising hydrogen and the catalyst reacts to form lower energy hydrogen, heat exchanger 80 absorbs the heat released by the catalytic reaction. The heat exchanger exchanges heat with a steam generator 82 that absorbs heat from the exchanger 80 and produces steam. The energy reactor 70 further includes a turbine 90 that receives steam from the steam generator 82 and provides mechanical power to the generator 100 that converts steam energy into electrical energy that can be received by the load 110 to produce work or power consumption.

In an embodiment, the energy reaction mixture 74 includes an energy release material 76, such as fuel supplied via a supply passage 62. The reaction mixture may comprise a hydrogen isotope atom source or a molecular hydrogen isotope source and a source of catalyst 78 that removes about m ‧27.2 eV (where m is an integer, preferably less than 400) to form a lower energy atomic hydrogen catalyst, wherein The reaction to form lower energy hydrogen is carried out by contacting hydrogen with the catalyst. The catalyst can be in a molten, liquid, gaseous or solid state. The catalysis releases energy in a form such as heat and forms at least one of a lower energy hydrogen isotope atom, a lower energy hydrogen molecule, a hydrogen anion, and a lower energy hydrogen compound. Therefore, the power unit also contains a lower energy hydrogen chemical reactor.

The hydrogen source can be hydrogen, hydrolyzed (including thermal dissociation), water electrolyzed, hydrogen from hydride or hydrogen from a metal-hydrogen solution. In another embodiment, the molecular hydrogen dissociation catalyst of mixture 74 dissociates the molecular hydrogen of energy release material 76 into atomic hydrogen. The dissociation catalyst or dissociator may also absorb hydrogen, helium or neon atoms and/or molecules and include, for example, elements, compounds, alloys or mixtures of the following metals: noble metals such as palladium and platinum; refractory metals such as molybdenum and tungsten; Transition metals such as nickel and titanium; and internal transition metals such as lanthanum and zirconium. The dissociator preferably has a high surface area such as a noble metal such as Pt, Pd, Ru, Ir, Re or Rh or Ni on Al ₂ O ₃ , SiO ₂ or a combination thereof.

In one embodiment, by t electrons from the ionized atoms or ions to the continuous energy level, so that the ionization of t electrons is approximately the sum of the energy to provide a catalytic m ‧27.2 eV (where t and m are each an integer). Catalysis can also be provided by t electron transfer between participating ions. transfer of t electrons from one ion to another ion provides a net enthalpy of reaction, wherein the sum of t electrons for ionization energy of electrons ions minus the ionization of t electrons by ions of electron energy equal to about m ‧27.2 eV, where t And m are each an integer. In another embodiment, the catalyst comprises MH , such as NaH , in which the atom M is combined with hydrogen, and provides a enthalpy of m ‧27.2 eV from the sum of the MH bond energy and the t electron ionization energies.

In one embodiment, the catalyst source comprises a catalytic material 78 supplied via a catalyst supply channel 61, which catalytic material 78 typically provides about Add or subtract the net 1 of 1 eV . The catalyst contains atoms, ions, molecules, and low energy hydrogen that accept energy from atomic hydrogen and low energy hydrogen. In an embodiment, the catalyst may comprise at least one member selected from the group consisting of molecules A1H, BiH, ClH, CoH, GeH, InH, NaH, RuH, SbH, SeH, SiH, SnH, C ₂ , N ₂ , O ₂ , C O ₂ , NO ₂ and NO ₃ and the atoms or ions Li, Be, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Kr, Rb, Sr, Nb, Mo, Pd , Sn, Te, Cs, Ce, Pr, Sm, Gd, Dy, Pb, Pt, Kr, 2 K ⁺ , He ⁺ , Ti ²⁺ , Na ⁺ , Rb ⁺ , Sr ⁺ , Fe ³⁺ , Mo ²⁺ , Mo ⁴⁺ , In ³⁺ , He ⁺ , Ar ⁺ , Xe ⁺ , Ar ²⁺ and H ⁺ and Ne ⁺ and H ⁺ .

In one embodiment of the power system, heat is removed by a heat exchanger having a heat exchange medium. The heat exchanger can be a water wall and the medium can be water. Heat can be transferred directly for space heating and process heating. Alternatively, a heat exchanger medium such as water undergoes a phase change, such as conversion to steam. This conversion can occur in the steam generator. Steam can be used to generate electricity in a heat engine such as a steam turbine and generator.

An embodiment of a reactor 5 for producing hydrogen catalyst energy and lower energy hydrogen species for recycling or regenerating fuel according to the present invention is shown in FIG. 2 and includes: a boiler 10 containing a source of hydrogen, a fuel reaction mixture 11 of a mixture of a catalyst source and optionally a vaporizable solvent; a hydrogen source 12; a steam tube and a steam generator 13; a power converter such as a turbine 14; a water condenser 16; a water supply source 17; a fuel recycler 18; and a hydrogen-two low energy hydrogen gas separator 19. In step 1, a fuel comprising a source of catalyst and a source of hydrogen, such as a gas, a liquid, a solid, or a fuel comprising a heterogeneous mixture of phases, reacts to form a low energy hydrogen and a lower energy hydrogen product. In step 2, the used fuel is reprocessed to supply the boiler 10 again, thereby maintaining thermal power generation. The heat generated in the boiler 10 forms steam in the tubes and steam generators 13, passes to the turbines 14, and is also powered by the supply generator. In step 3, the water is condensed by a water condenser 16. Any water loss can be supplemented by water source 17 to complete the cycle, thereby maintaining a heat to electricity energy conversion. In step 4, lower energy hydrogen products, such as low energy hydrogen hydride compounds and two low energy hydrogen gases, may be removed, and unreacted hydrogen may be returned to fuel recycler 18 or hydrogen source 12 for added reuse. The fuel is added to supplement the recycled fuel. The gaseous product and unreacted hydrogen may be separated by a hydrogen-two low energy hydrogen gas separator 19. Any product low energy hydrogen hydride compound product can be separated and removed using fuel recycler 18. Processing can be done in the boiler or outside the boiler and the fuel can be returned. Accordingly, the system can further include at least one gas and mass conveyor to move reactants and products for spent fuel removal, regeneration, and resupply. The hydrogen additive consumed in the formation of low energy hydrogen is added from source 12 during fuel reprocessing and may include recycled unconsumed hydrogen. The recirculated fuel maintains thermoelectric generation to drive the power plant to generate electricity.

The reactor can be operated in a continuous mode of hydrogen addition and separation and addition or replacement to resist minimal degradation of the reactants. Alternatively, the reaction fuel is continuously regenerated from the product. In one embodiment of the latter process, the reaction mixture comprises a material which produces a reactant for further reaction to form a low energy hydrogen atom or molecular catalyst and atomic hydrogen, and the product material formed by the catalyst and atomic hydrogen can be at least The step of reacting the products with hydrogen is regenerated. In an embodiment, the reactor comprises a moving bed reactor, the moving bed reactor may further comprise a fluidized reactor section, wherein the reactants are continuously supplied and the byproducts are removed and the reactants are regenerated and returned to the reactor . In one embodiment, a lower energy hydrogen product, such as a low energy hydrogen hydride compound or a two low energy hydrogen molecule, is collected as the reactants are regenerated. In addition, low energy hydrino hydride anions may form other compounds or be converted to two low energy hydrogen molecules during reactant regeneration.

The reactor may further comprise a separator such as a component that separates the product mixture by evaporating the solvent if a solvent is present. The separator may comprise, for example, a sieve to mechanically separate by physical differences such as size. The separator may also be a separator that utilizes the difference in density of the components of the mixture, such as a vortex separator. For example, at least two of a group selected from the group consisting of carbon, a metal such as Eu, and an inorganic product such as KBr can be separated based on a difference in density in a suitable medium such as a pressurized inert gas and by centrifugal force. Component separation can also be based on differences in dielectric constant and chargeability. For example, carbon and metal can be separated based on the application of an electrostatic charge to the former and removal from the mixture by an electric field. In the case where one or more of the components of the mixture are magnetic, separation can be achieved using a magnet. The mixture can be agitated on a series of strong magnets, either alone or in combination with one or more screens, to cause separation based on at least one of stronger attachment or attraction of the magnetic particles to the magnets and a difference in size between the two types of particles. In one embodiment using a screen and an applied magnetic field, the latter adds additional force in addition to gravity to draw smaller magnetic particles through the screen, while other particles of the mixture remain on the screen due to their larger size.

The reactor may further comprise a separator that separates one or more components based on different phase changes or reactions. In one embodiment, the phase change comprises melting using a heater and separating the liquid from the solid by methods known in the art, such as gravity filtration, filtration using a pressurized gas assist, centrifugation, and by applying a vacuum. The reaction may include a reaction such as decomposition of hydride decomposition or formation of a hydride, and separation may be achieved by melting the respective metal, then separating it, and mechanically separating the hydride powder. The latter (by mechanical separation) can be achieved by screening. In one embodiment, a phase change or reaction can produce the desired reactant or intermediate. In certain embodiments, regeneration including any desired separation steps can occur inside or outside the reactor.

Other methods known to those skilled in the art can be employed to carry out the separation of the present invention by employing routine experimentation. In general, mechanical separation can be divided into four groups: sedimentation, centrifugation, filtration, and screening. In an embodiment, particle separation is achieved by at least one of screening and using a classifier. The particle size and shape can be selected among the starting materials to achieve the desired product separation.

The power system can further include a catalyst condenser to maintain the catalyst vapor pressure by a temperature controller that controls the surface temperature to a lower value than the temperature of the reaction cell. The surface temperature is maintained at the desired value to provide the desired vapor pressure of the catalyst. In one embodiment, the catalyst condenser is a tube grid in the unit. In one embodiment using a heat exchanger, the flow rate of the heat transfer medium can be controlled at a rate that maintains the condenser at a desired temperature lower than the primary heat exchanger. In one embodiment, the working medium is water and the flow rate in the condenser is higher than the flow rate in the water wall such that the condenser is at a lower desired temperature. The separate working medium streams can be recombined and transferred for space heating and process heating or for conversion to steam.

Units of the present invention comprise the catalysts, reaction mixtures, methods and systems disclosed herein, wherein the particular unit is used as a reactor and at least one component that activates, initiates, expands, and/or sustains the reaction and regenerates the reactants. According to the invention, the unit comprises at least one catalyst or catalyst source, at least one atomic hydrogen source and a vessel. The operation of such units and systems is known to those skilled in the art. The electrolytic cell energy reactor of the present invention (such as a eutectic salt electrolytic cell, a plasma electrolytic reactor, a barrier electrode reactor, an RF plasma reactor, a pressurized gas energy reactor, a gas discharge energy reactor (preferably a pulse discharge) And better pulse compression plasma discharge), microwave battery energy reactor and combination of glow discharge battery and microwave and / or RF plasma reactor) include: hydrogen source; catalyst or reactant solid, molten, liquid, gas and One of the non-uniform sources, which in any of these states, causes a low-energy hydrogen reaction by the reaction between the reactants; a reactant or a vessel containing at least hydrogen and a catalyst, wherein hydrogen is contacted with the catalyst or by The MH catalyst reacts to form a reaction that forms lower energy hydrogen; and optionally, components for removing lower energy hydrogen products. In one embodiment, the reaction to form lower energy hydrogen is promoted by an oxidation reaction. The oxidation reaction can increase the rate of reaction to form low energy hydrogen by accepting electrons from the catalyst and at least one of neutralizing the highly charged cations formed by the energy from the atomic hydrogen. Thus, such units can operate in a manner that provides such an oxidation reaction. In one embodiment, the electrolysis or plasma bath can provide an oxidation reaction at the anode wherein hydrogen provided by a process such as bubbling reacts with the catalyst to form low energy hydrogen via participation in the oxidation reaction.

In one embodiment of the liquid fuel, the battery operates at a temperature at which the rate of solvent decomposition is negligible relative to the solvent regenerative power associated with battery power. Lower boiling working media can be used where the temperature is below the temperature at which a satisfactory energy conversion efficiency can be obtained by more conventional methods, such as using a steam cycle. In another embodiment, the working medium temperature can be increased using a heat pump. Thus, battery supply space heating and process heating operating at temperatures above ambient can be used, with components such as heat pumps increasing the temperature of the working medium. In the case of a sufficiently high temperature, a liquid to gas phase change can occur and the gas can be used for pressure volume (PV) work. PV work can include supplying generator power to generate electricity. The medium can then be condensed and the condensed working medium can be returned to the reactor unit for reheating and recirculation in the power cycle.

In one embodiment of the reactor, a heterogeneous catalyst mixture comprising a liquid phase and a solid phase is passed through the reactor. Flow can be achieved by pumping. The mixture can be a slurry. The mixture can be heated in a hot zone to cause hydrogen to catalyze into low energy hydrogen, thereby releasing heat to maintain the hot zone. The product can be passed out of the hot zone and the reaction mixture can be regenerated from the products. In another embodiment, at least one solid of the heterogeneous mixture can be fed into the reactor by gravity feed. The solvent can be introduced into the reactor either alone or in combination with one or more solids. The reaction mixture can comprise at least one of a dissociator, a high surface area (HSA) species, a population of R-Ni, Ni, NaH, Na, NaOH, and a solvent.

In one embodiment, one or more reactants, preferably a halogen source, a halogen gas, a source of oxygen, or a solvent are injected into a mixture of other reactants. The injection is controlled to optimize the excess energy and power from the reaction to form low energy hydrogen. The battery temperature and injection rate at the time of injection can be controlled to optimize. Other process parameters and mixing can be controlled to further optimize using methods known to those skilled in the art.

For energy conversion, each type of battery can be connected to any known transducer of thermal energy or plasma to mechanical power or power, including, for example, a heat engine, a steam or gas turbine system, a Sterling engine. Or a hot ion or thermoelectric converter. Other plasma transformers include a magnetic mirror magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a plasma dynamics power converter, a magnetic coil, a photon beam microwave power converter, a charge drift power machine, or a photoelectric transducer. In an embodiment, the battery includes at least one internal combustion engine cylinder.

III. Hydrogen batteries and solid, liquid and non-uniform fuel reactors

According to one embodiment of the invention, a reactor for producing low energy hydrogen and power may take the form of a reactor cell. The reactor of the present invention is shown in Figure 3. The reactants provide a low energy hydrogen of the reactants. Catalysis can be carried out in the gas phase or in a solid or liquid state.

The reactor of Figure 3 includes a reaction vessel 207 having a chamber 200 that can contain a vacuum or a pressure in excess of atmospheric pressure. A hydrogen source 221 in communication with the chamber 200 transfers hydrogen to the chamber via the hydrogen supply passage 242. Controller 222 is positioned to control the flow of pressure and hydrogen into the vessel via hydrogen supply passage 242. Pressure sensor 223 monitors the pressure in the container. The cavity is evacuated via vacuum line 257 using vacuum pump 256.

In one embodiment, the catalysis is carried out in the gas phase. The catalyst can be made a gas by maintaining the battery temperature at a high temperature, which in turn determines the vapor pressure of the catalyst. The atomic and/or molecular hydrogen reactants are also maintained at the desired pressure which can be in any pressure range. In one embodiment, the pressure is less than atmospheric pressure, preferably in the range of from about 10 millitorr to about 100 Torr. In another embodiment, the pressure is determined by maintaining a mixture of a catalyst source such as a metal source and a corresponding hydride such as a metal hydride in a battery maintained at the desired operating temperature.

A suitable catalyst source 250 for generating low energy hydrogen atoms can be placed in the catalyst reservoir 295 and can be formed by heating to form a gaseous catalyst. The reaction vessel 207 has a catalyst supply passage 241 that transfers a gaseous catalyst from the catalyst reservoir 295 to the reaction chamber 200. Alternatively, the catalyst can be placed in a chemically resistant open container, such as a boat, inside the reaction vessel.

The hydrogen source can be hydrogen and molecular hydrogen. Hydrogen can be dissociated into atomic hydrogen by a molecular hydrogen dissociation catalyst. The dissociation catalysts or dissociaters include, for example, Raney Nickel (R-Ni), precious metals, and noble metals on a support. The noble metal may be Pt, Pd, Ru, Ir, and Rh, and the carrier may be at least one of Ti, Nb, Al ₂ O ₃ , SiO _{2 ,} and a combination thereof. Other dissociators are Pt or Pd, nickel fiber mats, Pd flakes, Ti sponges, Pt or Pd, TiH, platinum black, and electroplated on Ti or Ni sponges or mats, which may include a hydrogen overflow catalyst on carbon. Palladium black, refractory metals (such as molybdenum and tungsten), transition metals (such as nickel and titanium), internal transition metals (such as cerium and zirconium), and other such materials known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, hydrogen dissociates on Pt or Pd. Pt or Pd may be coated on a support material such as titanium or Al ₂ O ₃ . In another embodiment, the dissociator is a refractory metal, such as tungsten or molybdenum, and the dissociated material can be maintained at a high temperature by temperature control assembly 230, which can take the heating as shown in cross-section in FIG. The form of the coil. The heating coil is powered by a power source 225. The dissociated material is preferably maintained at the operating temperature of the battery. The dissociator can further operate at temperatures above the battery temperature to dissociate more efficiently, and the high temperature prevents the catalyst from condensing on the dissociator. The hydrogen dissociator can also be provided by a hot filament such as 280 powered by a power source 285.

In one embodiment, hydrogen dissociation occurs such that the dissociated hydrogen atoms are in contact with the gaseous catalyst, producing a low energy hydrogen atom. The catalyst vapor pressure is maintained at the desired pressure by controlling the temperature of the catalyst reservoir 295 using a catalyst reservoir heater 298 powered by a power source 272. When the catalyst is contained in a boat inside the reactor, the temperature of the catalyst boat is controlled by adjusting the power of the boat to maintain the catalyst vapor pressure at a desired value. A heating coil 230 powered by a power source 225 controls the battery temperature to the desired operating temperature. The battery (referred to as an osmotic battery) can further include an internal reaction chamber 200 and an external hydrogen reservoir 290 such that hydrogen can be supplied to the battery by diffusion of hydrogen through the walls 291 separating the two chambers. The temperature of the wall can be controlled by a heater to control the rate of diffusion. The rate of diffusion can be further controlled by controlling the pressure of hydrogen in the hydrogen reservoir.

To maintain the catalyst pressure to the desired extent, the battery that will permeate as a source of hydrogen can be sealed. Alternatively, the battery further includes a high temperature valve at each inlet or outlet such that the valve contacting the reactive gas mixture is maintained at the desired temperature. The battery may further include an aspirator or collector 255 to selectively collect lower energy hydrogen species and/or a combination of increased hydrogen compounds, and may further comprise a selector valve 206 for releasing the two low energy hydrogen gas products. .

In one embodiment, reactant 260, such as a solid fuel or a heterogeneous catalyst fuel mixture, is reacted in vessel 200 by heating with heater 230. Additional reactants, such as at least one exothermic reactant, preferably having fast kinetics, can flow into the battery 200 via control valve 232 and connection 233. The reactant added may be a halogen source, a halogen, an oxygen source or a solvent. Reactant 260 can comprise a material that reacts with the added reactants. For example, a halogen may be added to form a halide with reactant 260, or an oxygen source may be added to reactant 260 to form an oxide.

The catalyst may be at least one of the group consisting of lithium, potassium or cesium, NaH molecules, 2H and low energy hydrogen atoms, wherein the catalysis comprises a disproportionation reaction. The lithium catalyst can be a gas by maintaining the battery temperature in the range of about 500-1000 °C. The battery is preferably maintained in the range of about 500-750 °C. The battery pressure can be maintained at less than atmospheric pressure, preferably in the range of from about 10 millitorr to about 100 Torr. Most preferably, at least one of the catalyst pressure and the hydrogen pressure is maintained by maintaining a mixture of the catalyst metal and the corresponding hydride such as lithium and lithium hydride, potassium and potassium hydride, sodium and sodium hydride, and hydrazine and hydrazine hydride. Determine the battery at the required operating temperature. The catalyst in the gas phase may comprise lithium atoms from a metal or metal lithium source. The lithium catalyst is preferably maintained at a pressure determined by a mixture of metallic lithium and lithium hydride in an operating temperature range of about 500-1000 ° C, and is preferably maintained at a pressure within the operating temperature range of about 500-750 ° C. under. In other embodiments, K, Cs, and Na are substituted for Li, wherein the catalyst is atom K, atom Cs, and molecular NaH.

In one embodiment of a gas cell reactor comprising a catalyst reservoir or a boat, the gas Na, NaH catalyst or a gaseous catalyst such as Li, K and Cs vapor is maintained in the battery relative to the reservoir as a battery vapor source Or under the condition that the steam in the boat is overheated. In one embodiment, the superheated vapor reduction catalyst is condensed on a dissociator of at least one of a hydrogen dissociator or a metal and metal hydride molecule disclosed below. In an embodiment comprising a catalyst comprising Li as a reservoir or boat, the reservoir or boat is maintained at a temperature at which Li is vaporized. H ₂ can be maintained at a pressure below the pressure of LiH which forms a significant molar fraction at the reservoir temperature. Pressure and temperature conditions to achieve the H ₂ pressure is determined on the molar fractions of LiH curve data may be known in the art of isotherms established. In one embodiment, the cell reaction chamber containing the dissociator operates at a higher temperature such that Li does not condense on the wall or dissociator. H ₂ may flow from the reservoir to the battery to increase the delivery rate of the catalyst. Flowing from the catalyst reservoir to the cell and then out of the cell is a method of removing low energy hydrogen products to prevent inhibition of the low energy hydrogen product of the reaction. In other embodiments, K, Cs, and Na are substituted for Li, wherein the catalyst is atom K, atom Cs, and molecular NaH.

Hydrogen is supplied to the reaction from a hydrogen source. For example, hydrogen is supplied by permeation from a hydrogen reservoir. The pressure of the hydrogen reservoir may range from 10 Torr to 10,000 Torr, preferably from 100 Torr to 1000 Torr, and most preferably at about atmospheric pressure. The battery can be operated at a temperature of from about 100 ° C to 3000 ° C, preferably from about 100 ° C to 1500 ° C, and most preferably from about 500 ° C to 800 ° C.

The hydrogen source can be decomposed from the added hydride. The battery supplied by permeating the H ₂ is designed as a battery containing an internal metal hydride placed in a sealed container in which the atom H oozes at a high temperature. The container may contain Pd, Ni, Ti or Nb. In one embodiment, the hydride is placed in a sealed tube, such as a Nb tube containing hydride, and sealed at both ends with a seal such as a Swagelock. In the sealed condition, the hydride may be an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal hydride. Alternatively, in this case and the condition of the internal hydride reagent, the hydride may be at least one of the following groups: physiological saline hydride, titanium hydride, vanadium hydride, hydrazine hydride and hydrazine hydride, zirconium hydride and hydrazine hydride. , rare earth metal hydrides, hydrazine hydride and hydrazine hydride, transition element hydrides, intermetalic hydrides and alloys thereof.

In one embodiment, the hydride and the operating temperature based on each hydride decomposition temperature ± 200 ° C are selected from at least one of the following: a rare earth metal hydride and an operating temperature of about 800 ° C; Operating temperature of 700 ° C; hydrazine hydride and operating temperature of about 750 ° C; hydrazine hydride and operating temperature of about 750 ° C; hydrazine hydride and operating temperature of about 800 ° C; hydrazine hydride and operating temperature of about 800 ° C; Operating temperature of 850-900 ° C; titanium hydride and operating temperature of about 450 ° C; hydrazine hydride and operating temperature of about 950 ° C; hydrazine hydride and operating temperature of about 700 ° C; zirconium hydride - titanium hydride (50% / 50%) And an operating temperature of about 600 ° C; an alkali metal/alkali metal hydride mixture such as Rb/RbH or K/KH, and an operating temperature of about 450 ° C; and an alkaline earth metal/alkaline earth metal hydride mixture such as Ba/BaH ₂ , And an operating temperature of about 900-1000 ° C.

The gaseous metal can comprise a diatomic covalent molecule. The object of the present invention is to provide atomic catalysts such as Li and K and Cs. Accordingly, the reactor may further comprise a dissociator of at least one of a metal molecule ("MM") and a metal hydride molecule ("MH"). Catalyst source, H ₂ source and MM, MH and the remover solution HH (where M is an atom of the catalyst) is preferably matched to the operating condition of the battery at a desired temperature, for example, and the concentration of the reaction. In the case of using H ₂ of the hydride source, in an embodiment, in which the decomposition temperature to produce the desired vapor pressure within the temperature range of the catalyst. In the case where hydrogen is derived from the hydrogen reservoir permeating into the reaction chamber, the preferred catalyst sources for continuous operation are Sr and Li metals, since their respective vapor pressures can range from 0.01 to 100 Torr at the temperature at which the permeation occurs. Need to be within range. In other embodiments of the osmotic battery, the battery operates at a high temperature that allows permeation, and then the battery temperature is reduced to a temperature that maintains the vapor pressure of the volatile catalyst at the desired pressure.

In one embodiment of the gas cell, the dissociator comprises a component that produces a catalyst and H from the source. A surface catalyst such as Pt on Ti or Pd, ruthenium or osmium alone or on a substrate such as Ti can also be used as a dissociator for molecules in which a catalyst is combined with a hydrogen atom. The dissociator preferably has a high surface area such as Pt/Al ₂ O ₃ or Pd/Al ₂ O ₃ .

The H ₂ source can also be hydrogen. In this embodiment, the pressure can be monitored and controlled. This is possible in the case of catalysts and catalyst sources such as K or Cs metals and LiNH ₂ , respectively, since these materials are volatile at low temperatures, allowing the use of high temperature valves. LiNH ₂ also reduces the required operating temperature of the Li battery and is less corrosive, allowing long-term operation of the feedthrough in the presence of plasma and filament batteries where the filaments are used as hydrogen dissociators.

Other embodiments of a gas cell hydrogen reactor having NaH as a catalyst comprise filaments and a dissociator in the reactor cell and Na in the reservoir. H ₂ can flow through the reservoir into the main chamber. The power can be controlled by controlling the gas flow rate, the H ₂ pressure, and the Na vapor pressure. The latter (Na vapor pressure) can be controlled by controlling the reservoir temperature. In another embodiment, the low energy hydrogen reaction is caused by heating using an external heater and the atom H is provided by the dissociator.

The reaction mixture can be agitated by methods known in the art, such as mechanical agitation or mixing. The agitation system can include one or more piezoelectric transducers. Each piezoelectric transducer provides ultrasonic agitation. The reaction cell can be vibrated and it further contains agitation elements, such as stainless steel balls or tungsten balls, which are vibrated to agitate the reaction mixture. In another embodiment, the mechanical agitation comprises a ball mill. These methods can also be used, preferably by ball milling to mix the reactants.

In one embodiment, the catalyst is formed by mechanical agitation, such as by at least one of agitation element vibration, ultrasonic agitation, and ball milling. Mechanical impact or compression of sound waves, such as ultrasonic waves, can cause reactant reactions or physical changes that cause the formation of catalysts, preferably NaH molecules. The reaction mixture may or may not contain a solvent. The reactants can be solids, such as solid NaH, which are mechanically agitated to form NaH molecules. Alternatively, the reaction mixture can comprise a liquid. The mixture can have at least one Na species. The Na material can be a component of a liquid mixture, or it can be in a dissolved state. In one embodiment, the sodium metal is dispersed by rapidly stirring a suspension of the metal in a solvent such as an ether, a hydrocarbon, a fluorinated hydrocarbon, an aromatic or a heterocyclic aromatic solvent. The solvent temperature can be kept just above the melting point of the metal.

IV. Fuel type

An embodiment of the present invention is directed to a fuel comprising at least one hydrogen source and at least one of a gas phase, a liquid phase, and a solid phase of a mixture of possible phases in which a source of hydrogen catalyzed to form a low energy hydrogen is maintained. mixture. The reactants and reactions of the solid and liquid fuels given herein are also the reactants and reactions of the non-homogeneous fuel comprising the mixture of phases.

One object of the present invention is to provide an atomic catalyst such as Li and K and Cs and a molecular catalyst NaH. The metal forms a diatomic covalent molecule. Thus, in solid fuel, liquid fuel, and non-homogeneous fuel embodiments, the reactants comprise alloys, complexes, and complex sources that can be reversibly formed using a metal catalyst M and decomposed or reacted to provide a catalyst such as Li or NaH. , mixtures, suspensions and solutions. In another embodiment, at least one of the catalyst source and the atomic hydrogen source further comprises at least one reaction to form a reactant of at least one of the catalyst and the atomic hydrogen. In another embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a NaH catalyst or a NaH catalyst source or other catalyst such as Li or K, which may be formed via one or more reactants or materials of the reaction mixture or may be formed by physical transformation. The conversion can be solvated with a suitable solvent.

The reaction mixture may further comprise a solid that promotes a catalytic reaction on the surface. A catalyst such as NaH or a catalyst source can be coated on the surface. Coating can be achieved by mixing a carrier such as activated carbon, TiC, WC, R-Ni with NaH by a method such as ball milling. The reaction mixture can comprise a heterogeneous catalyst or a source of non-homogeneous catalyst. In one embodiment, a catalyst such as NaH is coated onto a support such as activated carbon, TiC, WC or polymer by a microwetting process, preferably by using an aprotic solvent such as an ether. Vectors may also include inorganic compounds such as alkali halides, with the preferred NaF HNaF ₂ in at least one of which the catalyst is used as NaH and using a fluorinated solvent.

In one embodiment of the liquid fuel, the reaction mixture comprises at least one of a catalyst source, a catalyst, a hydrogen source, and a catalyst solvent. In other embodiments, the solid fuels and liquid fuels of the present invention further comprise a combination of the two and further comprise a gas phase. A heterogeneous reaction mixture, such as a catalyst and atomic hydrogen and its source, is used to catalyze a heterogeneous reaction mixture, and the fuel is referred to as a non-homogeneous fuel. Accordingly, the fuel comprises at least a reaction mixture of a hydrogen source converted to low energy hydrogen (state given by equation (35)) and a catalyst source causing the conversion, the reactant being at least one of a liquid phase, a solid phase, and a gas phase. By. Catalysts from different phases of the reactants are used to catalyze what is generally referred to in the art as non-homogeneous catalysis, which is an embodiment of the invention. The heterogeneous catalyst provides a surface upon which a chemical reaction takes place and constitutes an embodiment of the invention. The reactants and reactions of the solid and liquid fuels given herein are also reactants and reactions of non-homogeneous fuels.

For any of the fuels of the present invention, a catalyst such as NaH or a catalyst source may be mixed with other components of the reaction mixture, such as a support such as an HSA material, by methods such as mechanical mixing or by ball milling. In all cases, additional hydrogen may be added to sustain the reaction to form low energy hydrogen. Hydrogen can be at any desired pressure, preferably in the range of from 0.1 to 200 atm. The alternative hydrogen source comprises at least one of the group consisting of NH ₄ X (X is an anion, preferably a halide), NaBH ₄ , NaAlH ₄ , borane, and a metal hydride such as an alkali metal hydride, an alkaline earth metal hydrogenation. (preferably MgH ₂ ) and rare earth metal hydride (preferably LaH ₂ and GdH ₂ ).

A. Carrier

In certain embodiments, the solid, liquid, and non-homogenous fuels of the present invention comprise a carrier. The vector contains properties specific to its function. For example, in the case where the carrier acts as an electron acceptor or conduit, the carrier preferably has electrical conductivity. Further, the carrier preferably has a high surface area in the case where the carrier disperses the reactants. In the former case, a carrier such as an HSA carrier may contain a conductive polymer such as activated carbon, graphene, and a heterocyclic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon which may be a macromolecule. Although the carbon may preferably comprise activated carbon (AC), it may also comprise other forms such as mesoporous carbon, vitreous carbon, coke, graphitic carbon, dissociator metal (such as Pt or Pd) having a weight % of 0.1 to 5% by weight. Carbon, a transition metal powder having preferably one to ten carbon layers and more preferably three layers, and a metal or alloy coated carbon, preferably a nano powder, such as a transition metal coated coating of at least one of Ni, Co and Mn. carbon. Metal can be inserted into carbon. In the case where the intercalation metal is Na and the catalyst is NaH, it is preferred that the Na insertion is saturated. The carrier preferably has a high surface area. A common class of organic conductive polymers that can be used as a carrier is at least one of the following groups: poly(acetylene), poly(pyrrole), poly(thiophene), poly(aniline), poly(茀), poly(3) -alkylthiophene), polytetrathiafulvalene, polynaphthalene, poly(p-phenylene sulfide) and poly(p-phenylenevinyl). Such linear backbone polymers are generally known in the art as "black" or "melanin" such as polyacetylene, polyaniline, and the like. The carrier can be a mixed copolymer such as one of polyacetylene, polypyrrole and polyaniline. The conductive polymer carrier is preferably at least one of polyacetylene, polyaniline and polypyrrole usual derivatives. Other carriers include other elements than carbon, such as the conductive polymer polythiazide ((SN) _x ).

In another embodiment, the carrier is a semiconductor. The support may be element IV, such as carbon, ruthenium, osmium, and alpha-gray tin. In addition to elemental materials such as ruthenium and osmium, the semiconductor carrier contains a compound material such as gallium arsenide and indium phosphide or an alloy such as ruthenium or aluminum arsenide. In one embodiment, the conductivity of a substance such as ruthenium and osmium crystals may be enhanced by the addition of a small amount (e.g., 1-10 parts per million) of dopant, such as boron or phosphorus, during crystal growth. The doped semiconductor can be ground into a powder and used as a carrier.

In certain embodiments, the HSA support is a metal such as a transition metal, a noble metal, a meta-metal, a rare earth metal, a lanthanide metal, a lanthanide metal (preferably one of La, Pr, Nd, and Sm), Al, Ga, In , Tl, Sn, Pb, metalloid, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, and an alloy containing at least two metals or elements of the group, such as a lanthanide alloy, preferably LaNi ₅ and Y-Ni. The support may be a noble metal such as at least one of Pt, Pd, Au, Ir, and Rh, or a supported noble metal such as Pt or Pd (Pt/Ti or Pd/Ti) on titanium.

In other embodiments, the HSA species comprises at least one of: cubic boron nitride, hexagonal boron nitride, wurtzite boron nitride powder, heterodiamond, boron nitride nanotube, tantalum nitride, Aluminum nitride, titanium nitride (TiN), titanium aluminum nitride (TiAlN), tungsten nitride, carbon coated metal or alloy (preferably nano powder, such as having a preferred one to ten carbon layer and more preferably three layers) At least one of Co, Ni, Fe, Mn, and other transition metal powders, metal or alloy coated carbon (preferably nanopowder, such as transition metal, preferably at least one of Ni, Co, and Mn coated carbon) ), carbide (preferably powder), cerium oxide (BeO) powder, rare earth oxide powder (such as La ₂ O ₃ , Zr ₂ O ₃ , Al ₂ O ₃ , sodium aluminate) and carbon (such as fluorene, graphene) Or a tube, preferably a single wall).

The carbide may comprise one or more bond types: salts such as calcium carbide (CaC ₂ ), covalent compounds such as lanthanum carbide (SiC) and boron carbide (B ₄ C or BC ₃ ), and interstitial such as tungsten carbide. Compound. The carbide may be an alkyne such as Au ₂ C ₂ , ZnC ₂ and CdC ₂ or a methyl metal compound such as Be ₂ C, aluminum carbide (Al ₄ C ₃ ) and a carbide of the A ₃ MC type, wherein A is mainly A rare earth metal or a transition metal such as Sc, Y, La-Na, Gd-Lu, and M is a metal or semi-metal main group element such as Al, Ge, In, Tl, Sn, and Pb. have The carbide of ions may comprise at least one of the following: carbide Wherein the cation M ^I comprises one of an alkali metal or a coin metal; the carbide M ^II C ₂ wherein the cation M ^II comprises an alkaline earth metal; and a preferred carbide Wherein the cation M ^III comprises Al, La, Pr or Tb. Carbides can contain Ions other than ions such as YC ₂ , TbC ₂ , YbC ₂ , UC ₂ , Ce ₂ C ₃ , Pr ₂ C ₃ and Tb ₂ C ₃ . The carbide may comprise sesquicarbones such as Mg ₂ C ₃ , Sc ₃ C ₄ and Li ₄ C ₃ . The carbide may comprise a ternary carbide such as a carbide containing a lanthanide metal and a transition metal, which may further comprise a C ₂ unit such as Ln ₃ M ( C ₂ ) ₂ wherein M is Fe, Co, Ni, Ru, Rh Os and Ir), Dy ₁₂ Mn ₅ C ₁₅ , Ln _3.67 FeC ₆ , Ln ₃ Mn ( C ₂ ) ₂ (Ln=Gd and Tb) and ScCrC ₂ . The carbide may further have an "intermediate" transition metal carbide class, such as iron carbide (Fe ₃ C or FeC ₂ :Fe). The carbide may be at least one carbide from the group: lanthanide (MC ₂ and M ₂ C ₃ ), such as lanthanum carbide (LaC ₂ or La ₂ C ₃ ); lanthanum carbide; lanthanide carbide; transition metal carbonization Materials such as tantalum carbide, titanium carbide (TiC), vanadium carbide, chromium carbide, manganese carbide and cobalt carbide, tantalum carbide, molybdenum carbide, tantalum carbide, zirconium carbide and tantalum carbide. Other suitable carbides include at least one of the following: Ln ₂ FeC ₄ , Sc ₃ CoC ₄ , Ln ₃ MC ₄ (M=Fe, Co, Ni, Ru, Rh, Os, Ir), Ln ₃ Mn ₂ C ₆ , Eu _3.16 NiC ₆ , ScCrC ₂ , Th ₂ NiC ₂ , Y ₂ ReC ₂ , Ln ₁₂ M ₅ C ₁₅ (M=Mn, Re), YCoC, Y ₂ ReC ₂ and other carbides known in the art.

In one embodiment, the support is a conductive carbide such as TiC or WC and HfC, Mo ₂ C, TaC, YC ₂ , ZrC, Al ₄ C ₃ and B ₄ C. The support can be a metal boride including, for example, MB ₂ boride. HSA carrier or the conductive material may be a boride, a preferred two-dimensional mesh boride, such as MB _2, wherein M is a metal, such as at least one of the following: Cr, Ti, Mg, Zr and Gd (CrB _2, TiB ₂ , MgB ₂ , ZrB ₂ , GdB ₂ ).

In embodiments of the carbon-HSA material, Na is not inserted into the carbon support or forms an acetylide by reaction with carbon. In one embodiment, the catalyst or catalyst source, preferably NaH, is incorporated into the interior of the HSA material such as Fu, carbon nanotubes and zeolite. The HSA material may further comprise graphite, graphene, diamond-like carbon (DLC), hydrogenated diamond-like carbon (HDLC), diamond powder, graphitic carbon, vitreous carbon, and other metals (such as Co, Ni, Mn, Fe, Y, Pd). And at least one of Pt) or a dopant comprising other elements (such as a fluorinated carbon, preferably fluorinated graphite, fluorinated diamond or fluorinated tetracarbon (C ₄ F)). The HSA species may be passivated by fluoride, such as a fluoride coated metal or carbon, or comprise a fluoride such as a metal fluoride, preferably an alkali metal or a rare earth metal fluoride.

A suitable carrier having a large surface area is activated carbon. Activated carbon can be activated or reactivated by physical or chemical activation. The previous activation may comprise carbonization or oxidation, and the latter activation may comprise impregnation with a chemical.

The reaction mixture may further comprise a carrier such as a polymeric carrier. The polymeric carrier may be selected from the following: poly (tetrafluoroethylene), TEFLON ^TM such as; polyethylene ferrocene; polystyrene; polypropylene; polyethylene; polyisoprene; poly (phosphazene group); a polymer comprising an ether unit, such as polyethylene glycol or polyethylene oxide and polypropylene glycol or polypropylene oxide, preferably an aryl ether; a polyether polyol such as poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol (PTMEG, poly Tetrahydrofuran, "Terathane", "polyTHF"); polyethylene formaldehyde; and polymers derived from epoxide reactions such as polyethylene oxide and polypropylene oxide. In an embodiment, the HSA comprises fluorine. The carrier may comprise at least one of the group consisting of fluorinated organic molecules, fluorinated hydrocarbons, fluorinated alkoxylates, and fluorinated ethers. Exemplary fluorinated HSA as TEFLON ^TM, TEFLON ^TM -PFA, polyvinyl fluoride, PVF, poly (vinylidene fluoride), poly (vinylidene fluoride co hexafluoropropylene) and perfluoroalkoxy polymer.

B. Solid fuel

The solid fuel comprises a catalyst or catalyst source that forms low energy hydrogen (such as at least one catalyst such as a catalyst selected from the group consisting of LiH, Li, NaH, Na, KH, K, RbH, Rb, and CsH), an atomic hydrogen source, and at least one of the following An HSA carrier, a getter, a dispersant, and other solid chemical reactants that perform one or more of the following functions: (i) by performing a reaction, such as by reacting between one or more components of the reaction mixture, or Physical or chemical changes by at least one component of the reaction mixture, the reactants form a catalyst or atomic hydrogen; and (ii) the reactant initiates, expands, and maintains a catalytic reaction that forms low energy hydrogen. The battery pressure is preferably in the range of from about 1 Torr to 100 atm. The reaction temperature is preferably in the range of from about 100 °C to 900 °C. Many examples of solid fuels given in the present invention, including liquid fuel reaction mixtures comprising a solvent and no solvent, are not intended to be exhaustive. Other reaction mixtures are taught by those skilled in the art based on the present invention.

The hydrogen source may comprise hydrogen or a hydride and a dissociator such as Pt/Ti, hydrided Pt/Ti, Pd, Pt or Ru/Al ₂ O ₃ , Ni, Ti or Nb powder. At least one of the HSA carrier, getter, and dispersant may comprise at least one of the group consisting of metal powders (such as Ni, Ti, or Nb powders), R-Ni, ZrO ₂ , Al ₂ O ₃ , NaX (X=F, Cl, Br, I), Na ₂ O, NaOH and Na ₂ CO ₃ . In one embodiment, the metal catalyzes the formation of NaH molecules from sources such as Na and H sources. The metals may be transition metals, noble metals, intermetallics, rare earth metals, lanthanide metals and lanthanide metals, and other metals such as aluminum and tin.

C. Low energy hydrogen reaction activator

The low energy hydrogen reaction can be activated or initiated and expanded by one or more other chemical reactions. Such reactions can have several classes, such as: (i) an exothermic reaction that provides activation energy for a low energy hydrogen reaction; (ii) a coupling reaction that provides at least one of a catalyst source or an atomic hydrogen source to maintain low energy hydrogen a reaction; (iii) a free radical reaction, which in one embodiment acts as a acceptor for electrons from the catalyst during a low energy hydrogen reaction; (iv) a redox reaction, in one embodiment it is during a low energy hydrogen reaction Used as a receptor for electrons from the catalyst; (v) exchange reaction, such as anion exchange, including halide, sulfide, hydrogen, arsenic, oxygen, phosphorus and nitrogen ion exchange, which in one embodiment promotes The catalyst undergoes ionization upon receiving energy from atomic hydrogen to form low energy hydrogen; and (vi) a getter, carrier or matrix assisted low energy hydrogen reaction that provides at least one chemical environment for low energy hydrogen reactions Used to transfer electrons to promote H catalyst function, undergo reversible or other physical changes or changes in their electronic states, and combine lower energy hydrogen products to increase the extent or rate of low energy hydrogen reactions Of at least one. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a support, preferably an electrically conductive support, to initiate the activation reaction.

In one embodiment, a catalyst such as Li , K, and NaH is used to form low energy hydrogen from the catalyst by an acceleration rate limiting step, when the catalyst is ionized by accepting non-radiative resonance energy transfer from atomic hydrogen. Low energy hydrogen is formed at a high rate. A typical metal form of Li and K can be converted by using a carrier or an HSA substance such as activated carbon (AC), Pt/C, Pd/C, TiC or WC to separately disperse catalysts such as Li and K atoms and NaH molecules. The ionic form of the atomic form and NaH can be converted to a molecular form. The carrier preferably has a high surface area and electrical conductivity in view of surface modification upon reaction with other materials of the reaction mixture. The reaction causing the conversion of atomic hydrogen to form low-energy hydrogen requires a catalyst such as Li , K or NaH and atomic hydrogen, wherein NaH is used as a catalyst in a synergistic reaction and an atomic hydrogen source. The reaction step of non-radiative energy transfer of atomic hydrogen to an integral multiple of 27.2 eV of the catalyst produces an ionizing catalyst and free electrons, causing the reaction to quickly stop due to charge buildup. A carrier such as AC can also act as a conductive electron acceptor and add a final electron acceptor reactant comprising an oxidant radical or its source to the reaction mixture to ultimately scavenge electrons released from the reaction of the low energy hydrogen catalyst. Further, a reducing agent may be added to the reaction mixture to promote the oxidation reaction. The synergistic electron acceptor reaction is preferably an exothermic reaction to heat the reactants and increase the rate. The activation energy and expansion of the reaction can be provided by a rapid, exothermic, oxidative or free radical reaction, such as the reaction of O ₂ or CF ₄ with Mg or Al , wherein radicals such as CF _x and F and O ₂ and O are used to ultimately pass through, for example, AC. The carrier accepts electrons from the catalyst. Other oxidizing or free radical sources, alone or in combination, may be selected from the group consisting of O ₂ , O ₃ , N ₂ O , NF ₃ , M ₂ S ₂ O ₈ (M is an alkali metal), S, CS ₂ and SO ₂ , MnI ₂ , EuBr ₂ , AgCl and other oxidant or free radical sources given in the electron acceptor reaction section.

The oxidizing agent preferably accepts at least two electrons. The corresponding anion can be , S ^2- , (tetrathiorutate), and . Catalysts from secondary ionization during the catalysis, such as NaH and Li (equations (25-27) and (37-39)), can be accepted. The addition of an electron acceptor to a reaction mixture or reactor is suitable for all battery embodiments of the invention, such as solid fuel and heterogeneous catalyst embodiments, as well as electrolytic cells and plasma batteries, such as glow discharge, RF, microwave, and barrier electrode plasma batteries. And a plasma electrolytic cell operating in continuous or pulsed mode. Electronically conductive, preferably non-reactive carriers such as AC may also be added to the reactants of each of these battery embodiments. One embodiment of a microwave plasma battery includes a hydrogen dissociator, such as a metal surface inside a plasma chamber, to support hydrogen atoms.

In embodiments, materials of the substance mixture, compound or reaction mixture, such as a catalyst source, an energy reaction source (such as at least one of a metal and oxygen source, a halogen source, and a free radical source) and a carrier may be used in combination. The reaction elements of the compound or the substance of the reaction mixture may also be used in combination. For example, the fluorine source or the chlorine source may be a mixture of N _x F _y and N _x Cl _y , or the halogen may be mixed in, for example, the compound N _x F _y Cl _r . Combinations can be determined by routine experimentation by those skilled in the art.

Exothermic reaction

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a catalyst source or catalyst (such as at least one of NaH, K, and Li) and a hydrogen source or hydrogen and at least one species that reacts. The reaction is preferably completely exothermic and preferably has rapid kinetics so that it provides activation energy for the low energy hydrogen catalyst reaction. The reaction can be an oxidation reaction. Suitable oxidation reactions are the reaction of a substance comprising oxygen, such as a solvent, preferably an ether solvent, with a metal such as at least one of Al, Ti, Be, Si, P, a rare earth metal, an alkali metal, and an alkaline earth metal. The exothermic reaction is more preferred to form an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal halide, preferably MgF ₂ , or a halide of Al, Si, P and a rare earth metal. Suitable halides are reacted with a halogen-containing material (such as a solvent, preferably a fluorocarbon solvent) and at least one of a metal and a metal hydride (such as at least one of Al, a rare earth metal, an alkali metal, and an alkaline earth metal) Reaction. The metal or metal hydride can be a catalyst or a catalyst source such as NaH, K or Li. The reaction mixture may comprise at least NaH and NaAlCl ₄ or NaAlF ₄ having the products NaCl and NaF, respectively. The reaction mixture may comprise at least NaH, a fluorinated solvent having the product NaF.

In general, the product of the exothermic reaction that provides activation energy for the low energy hydrogen reaction can be a metal oxide or a metal halide, preferably a metal fluoride. Suitable products are Al ₂ O ₃ , M ₂ O ₃ (M = rare earth metal), TiO ₂ , Ti ₂ O ₃ , SiO ₂ , PF ₃ or PF ₅ , AlF ₃ , MgF ₂ , MF ₃ (M = rare earth metal) , NaF, NaHF ₂ , KF, KHF ₂ , LiF and LiHF ₂ . In one embodiment in which Ti is subjected to an exothermic reaction, the catalyst is Ti ²⁺ having a second ionization energy of 27.2 eV (m = 1 in the equation (5)). The reaction mixture may comprise at least two of: NaH, Na, NaNH ₂ , NaOH, Teflon, carbon fluoride, and Ti sources such as Pt/Ti or Pd/Ti. In one embodiment where Al is subjected to an exothermic reaction, the catalyst is AlH given in Table 2. The reaction mixture may comprise at least two of: NaH, Al, carbon powder, fluorocarbon (preferably solvent such as hexafluorobenzene or perfluoroheptane), Na, NaOH, Li, LiH, K, KH and R- Ni. Preferably, the product of the exothermic reaction providing activation energy is regenerated to form a reactant for another cycle of forming low energy hydrogen and releasing corresponding power. The metal fluoride product preferably regenerates the metal and fluorine gas by electrolysis. The electrolyte can comprise a eutectic mixture. To form an initial metal may be a metal hydride and a solvent are fluorocarbons and hydrogenated physicochemical and any carbon product and CH ₄ may be a fluorinated hydrocarbon product.

In an embodiment of the exothermic reaction for activating a low energy hydrogen shift reaction, at least one of the group of rare earth metals (M), Al, Ti, and Si is oxidized to a corresponding oxide, such as M ₂ O ₃ , Al ₂ O, respectively. ₃ , Ti ₂ O ₃ and SiO ₂ . The oxidizing agent may be an ether solvent such as 1,4-benzodioxane (BDO), and may further contain a fluorocarbon such as hexafluorobenzene (HFB) or perfluoroheptane to accelerate the oxidation reaction. In an exemplary reaction, the mixture comprises at least one of NaH, activated carbon, Si and Ti, and at least one of BDO and HFB. In the case where Si is used as a reducing agent, the product SiO ₂ can regenerate Si by reduction of H ₂ at a high temperature or by reaction with carbon to form Si and CO and CO ₂ . An embodiment of the reaction mixture forming low energy hydrogen comprises a catalyst or a catalyst source (such as at least one of Na, NaH, K, KH, Li, and LiH), preferably a catalytic reaction with rapid kinetic activation of H An exothermic reactant source or exothermic reactant and carrier that form low energy hydrogen. The exothermic reactant can comprise an oxygen source and a material that reacts with oxygen to form an oxide. For x and y as integers, the oxygen source is preferably H ₂ O, O ₂ , H ₂ O ₂ , MnO ₂ , oxides, carbon oxides (preferably CO or CO ₂ ), nitrogen oxides N _x O _y (such as N ₂ O and NO ₂ ), sulfur oxides S _x O _y (preferably an oxidizing agent such as M ₂ S _x O _y (M is an alkali metal), which may optionally be used together with an oxidation catalyst such as silver ions ), Cl _x O _y (such as Cl ₂ O and preferably ClO ₂ from NaClO ₂ ), concentrated acid and mixtures thereof (such as HNO ₂ , HNO ₃ , H ₂ SO ₄ , H ₂ SO ₃ , HCl and HF) Good acid nitroxide ( NO ₂ ⁺ )), NaOCl, I _x O _y (preferably I ₂ O ₅ ), P _x O _y , S _x O _y , inorganic compounds (such as nitrite, nitrate, chlorine) One of perchlorates of acid salts, sulfates, phosphates, metal oxides (such as cobalt oxide) and catalyst oxides or hydroxides (such as NaOH) and cations as catalyst sources (such as Na, K and Li) An oxygen-containing functional group of an oxyanion, an organic compound such as an ether, preferably dimethoxyethane, dioxane, and one of 1,4-benzodioxane (BDO), and the reactive substance may comprise At least one of a group of rare earth metals (M), Al, Ti, and Si, and Oxide respectively _{M 2 O 3, Al 2 O} 3, Ti 2 O 3 and SiO _2. The reaction material may comprise a metal or an element of an oxide product of at least one of the following groups: Al ₂ O ₃ alumina, La ₂ O ₃ cerium oxide, MgO magnesium oxide, Ti ₂ O ₃ titanium oxide, DY ₂ O ₃ cerium oxide. , Er ₂ O ₃ ruthenium oxide, Eu ₂ O ₃ ruthenium oxide, LiOH lithium hydroxide, Ho ₂ O ₃ ruthenium oxide, Li ₂ O lithium oxide, Lu ₂ O ₃ ruthenium oxide, Nb ₂ O ₅ ruthenium oxide, Nd ₂ O ₃ cerium oxide, SiO ₂ cerium oxide, Pr ₂ O ₃ cerium oxide, Sc ₂ O ₃ cerium oxide, SrSiO ₃ bismuth bismuth citrate, Sm ₂ O ₃ cerium oxide, Tb ₂ O ₃ cerium oxide, Tm ₂ O ₃ cerium oxide , Y ₂ O ₃ yttrium oxide and Ta ₂ O ₅ yttrium oxide, B ₂ O ₃ boron oxide and zirconium oxide. The support may comprise carbon, preferably activated carbon. The metal or element may be at least one of the following: Al, La, Mg, Ti, Dy, Er, Eu, Li, Ho, Lu, Nb, Nd, Si, Pr, Sc, Sr, Sm, Tb, Tm, Y, Ta, B, Zr, S, P, C and their hydrides.

In another embodiment, the source of oxygen may be at least one of: an oxide such as M ₂ O, wherein M is an alkali metal, preferably Li ₂ O, Na ₂ O, and K ₂ O; a peroxide such as M ₂ O ₂ , wherein M is an alkali metal, preferably Li ₂ O ₂ , Na ₂ O ₂ and K ₂ O ₂ ; and a superoxide such as MO ₂ , wherein M is an alkali metal, preferably Li ₂ O ₂ , Na ₂ O ₂ and K ₂ O ₂ . The ionic peroxide may further comprise a peroxide of Ca, Sr or Ba.

In another embodiment, at least one of the exothermic reactant source or the exothermic reactant of the oxygen source and the catalytic reaction that preferably forms a low energy hydrogen with the fast kinetic activation H comprises one or more of the following groups : MNO ₃ , MNO, MNO ₂ , M ₃ N, M ₂ NH, MNH ₂ , MX, NH ₃ , MBH ₄ , MAlH ₄ , M ₃ AlH ₆ , MOH, M ₂ S, MHS, MFeSi, M ₂ CO ₃ , MHCO ₃ , M ₂ SO ₄ , MHSO ₄ , M ₃ PO ₄ , M ₂ HPO ₄ , MH ₂ PO ₄ , M ₂ MoO ₄ , MNbO ₃ , M ₂ B ₄ O ₇ (lithium tetraborate), MBO ₂ , M ₂ WO ₄ , MAlCl ₄ , MGaCl ₄ , M ₂ CrO ₄ , M ₂ Cr ₂ O ₇ , M ₂ TiO ₃ , MZrO ₃ , MAlO ₂ , MCoO ₂ , MGaO ₂ , M ₂ GeO ₃ , MMn ₂ O ₄ , M ₄ SiO ₄ , M ₂ SiO ₃ , MTaO ₃ , MCuCl ₄ , MPdCl ₄ , MVO ₃ , MIO ₃ , MFeO ₂ , MIO ₄ , MClO ₄ , MScO _n , MTiO _n , MVO _n , MCrO _n , MCr ₂ O _n , MMn ₂ O _n , MFeO _n , MCoO _n , MNiO _n , MNi ₂ O _n , MCuO _n and MZnO _n (where M is Li, Na or K and n=1, 2, 3 or 4), oxyanion, strong acid oxyanion, oxidant, the oxidant molecules (such as _{V 2 O 3, I 2 O} 5, MnO 2, Re 2 O 7, CrO 3 _{RuO 2, AgO, PdO, PdO} 2, PtO, PtO 2, I 2 O 4, I 2 O 5, I 2 O 9, SO 2, SO 3, CO 2, N 2 O, NO, NO 2, N 2 O ₃ , N ₂ O ₄ , N ₂ O ₅ , Cl ₂ O, ClO ₂ , Cl ₂ O ₃ , Cl ₂ O ₆ , Cl ₂ O ₇ , PO ₂ , P ₂ O ₃ and P ₂ O ₅ ), NH ₄ X (wherein X is nitrate or other suitable anion known to those skilled in the art, such as comprising F ^- , Cl ^- , Br ^- , I ^- , NO ₃ ^- , NO ₂ ^- , SO ₄ ^2- , HSO ₄ ^- , CoO ₂ ^- , IO ₃ ^- , IO ₄ ^- , TiO ₃ ^- , CrO ₄ ^- , FeO ₂ ^- , PO ₄ ^3- , HPO ₄ ^2- , H ₂ PO ₄ ^- , VO ₃ ^- , ClO ₄ ^- and Cr ₂ O ₇ ^2- and one of the other anions of the reactants). The reaction mixture may additionally comprise a reducing agent. In one embodiment, N ₂ O _{5 is} formed from a reaction of a reactant mixture, such as HNO ₃ and P ₂ O ₅ according to 2P ₂ O ₅ +12 HNO ₃ to 4H ₃ PO ₄ +6N ₂ O ₅ .

In one embodiment, the oxygen or oxygen containing compounds participating in an exothermic reaction, O ₂ can be used as catalysts or catalyst source. The oxygen molecular bond energy is 5.165 eV, and the first, second and third ionization energies of the oxygen atoms are 13.61806 eV , 35.11730 eV and 54.9355 eV respectively. The reaction O ₂ → O + O ²⁺ , O ₂ → O + O ³⁺ And 2 O → 2 O ⁺ provide a net enthalpy of about 2 times, 4 times and 1 time of E _h , respectively, and comprises a catalyst reaction for forming low energy hydrogen by accepting such energy from H to cause formation of low energy hydrogen.

In addition, the exothermic reaction source for activating the low-energy hydrogen reaction may be a metal alloy forming reaction, preferably a metal alloy formed between Pd and Al which is initiated by melting Al. The exothermic reaction preferably produces energetic particles to activate the low energy hydrogen to form a reaction. The reactant can be a pyrogen or pyrotechnic composition. In another embodiment, the activation energy can be provided by operating the reactants at very high temperatures, such as in the range of about 1000-5000 °C, preferably in the range of about 1500-2500 °C. The reaction vessel may comprise a high temperature stainless steel alloy, a refractory metal or alloy, alumina or carbon. The high reactant temperature can be achieved by heating the reactor or by an exothermic reaction.

The exothermic reactant may comprise a halogen, preferably fluorine or chlorine, and a material which reacts with fluorine or chlorine to form a fluoride or chloride, respectively. Suitable fluorine sources are fluorocarbons (such as CF ₄ , hexafluorobenzene and hexadecane heptane), cesium fluoride (such as XeF ₂ , XeF ₄ and XeF ₆ ), B _x X _y (preferably BF ₃ , B _{2 )} F ₄ , BCl ₃ or BBr ₃ ), SF _x (such as fluorodecane), nitrogen fluoride N _x F _y (preferably NF ₃ ), NF ₃ O, SbF _x , BiF _x (preferably BiF ₅ ), N _x Cl _y (preferably NCl ₃ ), S _x X _y (preferably SCl ₂ or S _x F _y , X is halogen; x and y are integers such as SF ₄ , SF ₆ or S ₂ F ₁₀ ), phosphorus fluoride M ₂ S i F ₆ (wherein M is an alkali metal such as Na ₂ SiF ₆ and K ₂ SiF ₆ ), MSiF ₆ (wherein M is an alkaline earth metal such as MgSiF ₆ ), GaF ₃ , PF ₅ , MPF ₆ (wherein M is an alkali metal), MHF ₂ (wherein M is an alkali metal such as NaHF ₂ and KHF ₂ ), K ₂ TaF ₇ , KBF ₄ , K ₂ MnF ₆ and K ₂ ZrF ₆ (wherein other similar compounds are desired, such as A compound having another alkali metal or alkaline earth metal substitution such as one of Li, Na or K as an alkali metal). Suitable chlorine sources are chlorine, SbCl ₅ and chlorocarbons such as CCl ₄ and chloroform. The reactive species may comprise at least one of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal or hydride, a group of rare earth metals (M), Al, Si, Ti, and P that form a corresponding fluoride or chloride. The alkali metal of the reactant preferably corresponds to the alkali metal of the catalyst, the alkaline earth metal hydride is MgH ₂ , the rare earth metal is La, and Al is a nano powder. The support may comprise carbon, preferably activated carbon, mesoporous carbon, and carbon for use in a Li-ion battery. The reactants can be in any molar ratio. Preferably, the reactive species and fluorine or chlorine are in a stoichiometric ratio to an element such as a fluoride or chloride. The catalyst is present in excess, preferably in an almost identical molar ratio to the element which reacts with fluorine or chlorine, and in excess of the support.

The exothermic reactant may comprise a halogen gas (preferably chlorine or bromine) or a source of a halogen gas (such as HF, HCl, HBr, HI, preferably CF ₄ or CCl ₄ ) and a substance which reacts with the halogen to form a halide. The halogen source can also be a source of oxygen, such as C _x O _y X _r , where X is a halogen, and x, y, and r are integers and are known in the art. The reactive species may comprise at least one of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal or hydride, a rare earth metal, a group of Al, Si, and P that form a corresponding halide. The alkali metal of the reactant preferably corresponds to the alkali metal of the catalyst, the alkaline earth metal hydride is MgH ₂ , the rare earth metal is La, and Al is a nano powder. The support may comprise carbon, preferably activated carbon. The reactants can be in any molar ratio. Preferably, the reactive species and the halogen are in about the same stoichiometric ratio, the catalyst is in excess, preferably in the molar ratio of the elements which react with the halogen, and the carrier is in excess. In one embodiment, the reactants comprise: a catalyst source or catalyst such as Na, NaH, K, KH, Li, LiH, and H ₂ ; a halogen gas, preferably chlorine or bromine; Mg, MgH ₂ , rare earth metals (compare At least one of La, Gd or Pr), Al; and a carrier, preferably carbon; such as activated carbon.

b. Free radical reaction

In one embodiment, the exothermic reaction is a free radical reaction, preferably a halogen or oxygen radical reaction. The halogen radical source can be a halogen (preferably F ₂ or Cl ₂ ) or a fluorocarbon (preferably CF ₄ ). The source of F radicals is S ₂ F ₁₀ . The reaction mixture containing a halogen gas may further contain a radical initiator. The reactor may comprise an ultraviolet light source to form free radicals, preferably halogen radicals and more preferably chlorine or fluorine radicals. Free radical initiators are free radical initiators generally known in the art, such as peroxides, azo compounds, and sources of metal ions, such as metal salts, preferably cobalt halides, such as CoCl ₂ as a Co ²⁺ source or as FeSO _{4 of} Fe ²⁺ source. The latter preferably reacts with an oxygen species such as H ₂ O ₂ or O ₂ . Free radicals can be neutral.

The oxygen source can comprise an atomic oxygen source. Oxygen can be singlet oxygen. In one embodiment, singlet oxygen is formed by the reaction of NaOCl with H ₂ O ₂ . In one embodiment, the oxygen source comprises O ₂ and may further comprise a source of free radicals or a free radical initiator to extend the free radical reaction, preferably a free radical reaction of the O atom. The source of free radicals or oxygen may be at least one of ozone or ozonide. In an embodiment, the reactor contains a source of ozone, such as in oxygen, to provide ozone to the reaction mixture.

The radical source or the oxygen source may further comprise at least one of: a peroxy compound, a peroxide, H ₂ O ₂ , a compound containing an azo group, N ₂ O, NaOCl, Fenton's reagent or the like. , OH radical or source thereof, perrhenate ion or source thereof (such as alkali metal or alkaline earth metal perrhenate, preferably sodium perrhenate (Na ₄ XeO ₆ ) or potassium perruthenate (K ₄ XeO ₆ ), osmium tetroxide (XeO ₄ ) and pericylic acid (H ₄ XeO ₆ )) and sources of metal ions (such as metal salts). The metal salt may be at least one of FeSO ₄ , AlCl ₃ , TiCl ₃ and a preferred cobalt halide such as CoCl ₂ as a source of Co ²⁺ .

In one embodiment, a radical such as Cl is formed from a halogen such as Cl ₂ in a reaction mixture such as NaH+MgH ₂ + a carrier such as activated carbon (AC) + a halogen gas such as Cl ₂ . The free radical may be formed by reacting a mixture of Cl ₂ with a hydrocarbon such as CH ₄ at a high temperature such as exceeding 200 °C. The halogen can be in excess relative to the hydrocarbon moles. The chlorocarbon product and Cl radical can be reacted with a reducing agent to provide an activation energy and pathway for the formation of low energy hydrogen. The carbon product can be regenerated using a synthesis gas (synthesis gas) and a Fischer-Tropsch reaction or by direct hydrogen reduction of carbon to methane. The reaction mixture may comprise a mixture of O ₂ and Cl ₂ at a high temperature such as over 200 °C. The mixture can be reacted to form Cl _x O _y (x and y are integers) such as ClO, Cl ₂ O and ClO ₂ . The reaction mixture may comprise H ₂ and Cl ₂ which are reactive to form HCl at elevated temperatures such as in excess of 200 °C. The reaction mixture may comprise H ₂ and O ₂ and a complexing agent (such as Pt/Ti, Pt/C or Pd/C) which are reactive to form H ₂ O at a slightly elevated temperature such as above 50 °C. The compounding agent can be operated at a high pressure such as in the range of more than 1 atm, preferably about 2 to 100 atm. The reaction mixture can be non-stoichiometric to facilitate free radical and singlet oxygen formation. The system may further comprise an ultraviolet or plasma source to form free radicals, such as RF, microwave or glow discharge, preferably high voltage pulses, plasma sources. The reactant may further comprise a catalyst to form at least one of atomic radicals such as Cl, O and H, singlet oxygen, and ozone. The catalyst can be a precious metal such as Pt. In one embodiment in which Cl radicals are formed, the Pt catalyst is maintained at a temperature above the decomposition temperature of the platinum chloride, such as PtCl ₂ , PtCl _{3 ,} and PtCl ₄ having decomposition temperatures of 581 ° C, 435 ° C, and 327 ° C, respectively. In one embodiment, Pt can be recovered from a product mixture comprising a metal halide by dissolving the metal halide in a suitable solvent in which Pt, Pd or its halide is insoluble and removing the solution. Solids which may comprise carbon and Pt or Pd halides may be heated to form Pt or Pd on the carbon by decomposition of the corresponding halide.

In one embodiment, the N ₂ O, NO ₂ or NO gas is the added reaction mixture. N ₂ O and NO ₂ can be used as a source of NO radicals. In another embodiment, NO radical preferably by the NH ₃ oxidation is generated in the battery. The reaction can be a reaction of NH ₃ with O ₂ on platinum or platinum-ruthenium at elevated temperatures. NO, NO ₂ and N ₂ O can be produced by known industrial processes, such as by the Haber process followed by the Ostwald process. In an embodiment, the exemplary sequence of steps is:

In particular, the Haber process can be used to produce NH ₃ from N ₂ and H ₂ using a catalyst such as alpha iron containing an oxide at elevated temperatures and pressures. The Oswaldwald process can be used to oxidize ammonia to NO, NO ₂ and N ₂ O under a catalyst such as a hot platinum or platinum-ruthenium catalyst. The alkali metal nitrate can be regenerated using the methods disclosed above.

The system and reaction mixture can initiate and maintain a combustion reaction to provide at least one of singlet oxygen and free radicals. The combustion reactants can be non-stoichiometric to facilitate the formation of free radicals and singlet oxygen that react with other low energy hydrogen reactants. In one embodiment, the explosive reaction is inhibited to facilitate long-term stable reaction, or an explosive reaction is caused by a suitable reactant and molar ratio to achieve a desired low energy hydrogen reaction rate. In an embodiment, the battery includes at least one internal combustion engine cylinder.

c. Electron acceptor reaction

In an embodiment, the reaction mixture further comprises an electron acceptor. When energy is transferred from the atomic hydrogen to the catalyst during the catalytic reaction to form low energy hydrogen, the electron acceptor can act as a acceptor for electrons ionized from the catalyst. The electron acceptor may be at least one of a conductive polymer or a metal carrier, an oxidizing agent (such as a Group VI element, a molecule and a compound), a radical, a substance forming a stable radical, and a substance having a high electron affinity such as a halogen atom. , O ₂ , C, CF ₁ , CF ₂ , CF ₃ or CF ₄ , Si, S, P _x S _y , CS ₂ , S _x N _y and such compounds further comprising O and H, Au, At, Al _x O _y (x and y are integers), preferably AlO ₂ (in one embodiment, it is an intermediate in which Al(OH) ₃ reacts with Al under R-Ni), ClO, Cl ₂ , F ₂ , AlO ₂ , B ₂ N, CrC ₂ , C ₂ H, CuCl ₂ , CuBr ₂ , MnX ₃ (X=halogen), MoX ₃ (X=halogen), NiX ₃ (X=halogen), RuF ₄ , RuF ₅ or RuF ₆ , ScX ₄ (X = halogen), WO ₃ and other atoms and molecules known to those skilled in the art having high electron affinity. In one embodiment, the support acts as an electron acceptor for the catalyst when the catalyst is ionized by accepting non-radiative resonance energy transfer from atomic hydrogen. The support is preferably at least one electrically conductive substance and forms a stable free radical. Suitable such carriers are electrically conductive polymers. The carrier may form an anion at the macro structure, such as the formation of carbon ions Li C ₆ ion battery packs. In another embodiment, the carrier is a semiconductor, preferably doped to increase conductivity. The reaction mixture further comprises free radicals or sources thereof such as O, OH, O ₂ , O ₃ , H ₂ O ₂ , F, Cl and NO, which act as scavengers for the free radicals formed by the support during the catalysis. In one embodiment, a free radical such as NO can form a complex with a catalyst such as an alkali metal or a source of catalyst. In another embodiment, the carrier has unpaired electrons. The support can be paramagnetic, such as a rare earth element or compound, such as Er ₂ O ₃ . In one embodiment, a catalyst or catalyst source such as Li, NaH, K, Rb or Cs is immersed in an electron acceptor such as a support and the other components of the reaction mixture are added. The carrier is preferably an AC in which NaH or Na is inserted.

d. redox reaction

In one embodiment, the low energy hydrogen reaction is activated by a redox reaction. In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises at least two of the following groups: a catalyst, a source of hydrogen, an oxidizing agent, a reducing agent, and a carrier. The reaction mixture may also comprise a Lewis acid such as a Group 13 trihalide, preferably at least one of AlCl ₃ , BF ₃ , BCl ₃ and BBr ₃ . In certain embodiments, each reaction mixture comprises at least one member selected from the group consisting of components (i)-(iii): (i) selected from the group consisting of Li, LiH , K, KH , NaH , Rb, RbH, Cs And a catalyst of CsH; (ii) a hydrogen source selected from hydrogen, a hydrogen source or a hydride; (iii) and an oxidant selected from the group consisting of metal compounds such as halides, phosphides, borides, oxides, hydroxides , telluride, nitride, arsenide, selenide, telluride, telluride, carbide, sulfide, hydride, carbonate, bicarbonate, sulfate, hydrogen sulfate, phosphate, hydrogen phosphate, phosphoric acid Dihydrogen salts, nitrates, nitrites, permanganates, chlorates, perchlorates, chlorites, perchlorates, hypochlorites, bromates, perbromates, Bromide, perbromate, iodate, periodate, iodate, periodate, chromate, dichromate, citrate, selenate, arsenate Salt, citrate, borate, cobalt oxide, cerium oxide and other oxyanions (such as halogen, P, B, Si, N, As, S, Te, Sb, C, S, P, Mn, C a metal compound of r, Co and Te oxyanion, wherein the metal preferably comprises a transition metal, Sn, Ga, In, an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal; the oxidizing agent further comprises: a lead compound such as a lead halide; a bismuth compound such as a halogenated compound was oxides or sulfides, such as _{GeF 2, GeCl 2, GeBr 2} , GeI 2, GeO, GeP, GeS, GeI 4 and GeCl _4; fluorocarbons, such as CF ₄ or ClCF _3; carbon chlorine compounds such as CCl ₄ ; 0 ₂ ; MNO ₃ ; MClO ₄ ; MO ₂ ; NF ₃ ; N ₂ O; NO; NO ₂ ; boron-nitrogen compounds such as B ₃ N ₃ H ₆ ; sulfur-containing compounds such as SF ₆ , S , SO ₂ , SO ₃ , S ₂ O ₅ Cl ₂ , F ₅ SOF, M ₂ S ₂ O ₈ , S _x X _y (such as S ₂ Cl ₂ , SCl ₂ , S ₂ Br ₂ or S ₂ F ₂ ), CS ₂ , SO _x X _y (such as SOCl ₂ , SOF ₂ , SO ₂ F ₂ or SOBr ₂ ); X _x X' _y , such as ClF ₅ ; X _x X' _y O _z , such as ClO ₂ F, ClO ₂ F ₂ , ClOF ₃ , ClO ₃ F and ClO ₂ F ₃ ; boron-nitrogen compounds such as B ₃ N ₃ H ₆ ; Se; Te; Bi; As; Sb; Bi; TeX _x , preferably TeF ₄ , TeF ₆ ; TeO _x , preferably TeO ₂ or TeO ₃ ; SeX _x , preferably SeF ₆ ; SeO _x , Or preferably SeO ₂ SeO _3; tellurium oxide, tellurium halides or other compounds, such as _{TeO 2, TeO 3, Te (} OH) 6, TeBr 2, TeCl 2, TeBr 4, TeCl 4, TeF 4, TeI 4 , TeF _6, CoTe or NITE; selenium oxides, halides, selenium sulfide or other compounds, such as _{SeO 2, SeO 3, Se 2} Br 2, Se 2 Cl 2, SeBr 4, SeCl 4, SeF 4, SeF 6 _{, SeOBr 2, SeOCl 2, SeOF} 2, SeO 2 F 2, SeS 2, Se 2 S 6, Se 4 S 4 or _{Se 6 S 2; P; P} 2 O 5; P 2 S 5; P x X y, Such as PF ₃ , PCl ₃ , PBr ₃ , PI ₃ , PF ₅ , PCl ₅ , PBr ₄ F or PCl ₄ F; PO _x X _y , such as POBr ₃ , POI ₃ , POCl ₃ or POF ₃ ; PS _x X _y ( M is an alkali metal, x, y and z are integers, X and X' are halogens) such as PSBr ₃ , PSF ₃ , PSCl ₃ ; phosphorus-nitrogen compounds such as P ₃ N ₅ , (Cl ₂ PN) ₃ , (Cl ₂ PN) ₄ or (Br ₂ PN) _x ; arsenic oxides, halides, sulfides, selenides or tellurides or other arsenic compounds such as AlAs, As ₂ I ₄ , As ₂ Se, As ₄ S ₄ , AsBr ₃ , AsCl ₃ , AsF ₃ , AsI ₃ , As ₂ O ₃ , As ₂ Se ₃ , As ₂ S ₃ , As ₂ Te ₃ , AsCl ₅ , AsF ₅ , As ₂ O ₅ , As ₂ Se ₅ or As ₂ S ₅ ; bismuth oxides, halides, sulfides, sulfates, selenides, arsenides or other antimony compounds such as SbAs, SbBr ₃ , SbCl ₃ , SbF ₃ , SbI ₃ , Sb ₂ O ₃ , SbOCl, Sb ₂ Se ₃ , Sb ₂ (SO ₄ ) ₃ , Sb ₂ S ₃ , Sb ₂ Te ₃ , Sb ₂ O ₄ , SbCl ₅ , SbF ₅ , SbCl ₂ F ₃ , Sb ₂ O ₅ or Sb ₂ S ₅ ; cerium oxide, halide, sulfide, selenide or other cerium compound such as BiAsO ₄ , BiBr ₃ , BiCl ₃ , BiF ₃ , BiF ₅ , Bi(OH ₃ , BiI ₃ , Bi ₂ O ₃ , BiOBr, BiOCl, BiOI, Bi ₂ Se ₃ , Bi ₂ S ₃ , Bi ₂ Te ₃ or Bi ₂ O ₄ ; SiCl ₄ , SiBr ₄ ; metal oxides, hydroxides Or a halide such as a transition metal halide such as CrCl ₃ , ZnF ₂ , ZnBr ₂ , ZnI ₂ , MnCl ₂ , MnBr ₂ , MnI ₂ , CoBr ₂ , CoI ₂ , CoCl ₂ , NiCl ₂ , NiBr ₂ , NiF ₂ , FeF ₂ , FeCl ₂ , FeBr ₂ , FeCl ₃ , TiF ₃ , CuBr, CuBr ₂ , VF ₃ and CuCl ₂ ; metal halides such as SnF ₂ , SnCl ₂ , SnBr ₂ , SnI ₂ , SnF ₄ , SnCl ₄ , SnBr _{4, SnI 4, InF, InCl} , InBr _{InI, AgCl, AgI, AlF 3} , AlBr 3, AlI 3, YF 3, CdCl 2, CdBr 2, CdI 2, InCl 3, ZrCl 4, NbF 5, TaCl 5, MoCl 3, MoCl 5, NbCl 5, AsCl 3 , TiBr ₄ , SeCl ₂ , SeCl ₄ , InF ₃ , InCl ₃ , PbF ₄ , TeI ₄ , WCl ₆ , OsCl ₃ , GaCl ₃ , PtCl ₃ , ReCl ₃ , RhCl ₃ , RuCl ₃ ; metal oxide or hydroxide , such as Y ₂ O ₃ , FeO, Fe ₂ O ₃ or NbO, NiO, Ni ₂ O ₃ , SnO, SnO ₂ , Ag ₂ O, AgO, Ga ₂ O, As ₂ O ₃ , SeO ₂ , TeO ₂ , In (OH) ₃ , Sn(OH) ₂ , In(OH) ₃ , Ga(OH) ₃ and Bi(OH) ₃ ; CO ₂ ; As ₂ Se ₃ ; SF ₆ ; S; SbF ₃ ; CF ₄ ; NF ₃ Permanganate, such as KMnO ₄ and NaMnO ₄ ; P ₂ O ₅ ; nitrates such as LiNO ₃ , NaNO ₃ and KNO ₃ ; and boron halides such as BBr ₃ and BI ₃ ; Group 13 halides; Indium halides, such as InBr ₂ , InCl ₂ and InI ₃ ; silver halides, preferably AgCl or AgI; lead halides; cadmium halides; zirconium halides; preferred transition metal oxides, sulfides or halides (Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu or Zn with F, Cl, Br or I); second or third transition series Compound (preferably YF _3), oxides, sulfides (preferably Y ₂ S ₃₎ or hydroxide (preferably Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ag, Cd, Hf, Ta, W, Os of Hydroxide), such as NbX ₃ , NbX ₅ or TaX ₅ in the case of halides; metal sulfides such as Li ₂ S, ZnS, FeS, NiS, MnS, Cu ₂ S, CuS and SnS; alkaline earth metal halides such _{BaBr 2, BaCl 2, BaI 2} , SrBr 2, SrI 2, CaBr 2, CaI 2, MgBr 2 or MgI _2; rare earth metal halides, such as _{EuBr 3, LaF 3, LaBr 3} , CeBr 3, GdF 3, GdBr _3, the preferred form of state II, such as _{CeI 2, EuF 2, EuCl 2} , EuBr 2, EuI 2, DyI 2, NdI 2, SmI 2, YbI their halide form II of ₂ and ₂ TmI; metal boride , such as lanthanum boride; MB ₂ boride such as CrB ₂ , TiB ₂ , MgB ₂ , ZrB ₂ and GdB ₂ ; alkali metal halides such as LiCl, RbCl or CsI; and metal phosphides such as Ca ₃ P ₂ ; noble metal halides, oxides, sulfides, such as _{PtCl 2, PtBr 2, PtI 2} , PtCl 4, PdCl 2, PbBr 2 and PbI _2; rare earth metal sulfides, such as CeS, rare earth metal sulfides other suitable Sulfides of La and Gd; metals and anions such as Na ₂ TeO ₄ , Na ₂ TeO ₃ , Co(CN) ₂ , CoSb, CoAs, Co ₂ P, CoO, CoSe, CoTe, NiSb, NiAs, NiSe, Ni ₂ Si, MgSe; rare earth metal telluride such as EuTe; rare earth metal selenide such as EuSe; rare earth metal nitride such as EuN; metal nitrides such as AlN, GdN and Mg ₃ N ₂ ; containing at least two from oxygen and a compound of an atom of a group of different halogen atoms, such as F ₂ O, Cl ₂ O, ClO ₂ , Cl ₂ O ₆ , Cl ₂ O ₇ , ClF, ClF ₃ , ClOF ₃ , ClF ₅ , ClO ₂ F, ClO ₂ F ₃ , ClO ₃ F, BrF ₃ , BrF ₅ , I ₂ O ₅ , IBr, ICl, ICl ₃ , IF, IF ₃ , IF ₅ , IF ₇ ; and metal second or third transition series halides, such as OsF ₆ , PtF ₆ or IrF ₆ ; an alkali metal compound such as a halide, an oxide or a sulfide; and a metal which can be formed after reduction, such as an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, a transition metal, a rare earth metal, a Group 13 metal (preferably In And a compound of a Group 14 metal (preferably Sn); a metal hydride such as a rare earth metal hydride, an alkaline earth metal hydride or an alkali metal hydrogenation The catalyst or catalyst source may be a metal such as an alkali metal when the oxidant is a hydride, preferably a metal hydride. Suitable oxidizing agents are metal halides, sulfides, oxides, hydroxides, selenides and phosphides, such as alkaline earth metal halides (such as BaBr ₂ , BaCl ₂ , BaI ₂ , CaBr ₂ , MgBr ₂ or MgI ₂ ), rare earths Metal halides (such as EuBr ₂ , EuBr ₃ , EuF ₃ , LaF ₃ , GdF ₃ , GdBr ₃ , LaF ₃ , LaBr ₃ , CeBr ₃ ), second or third series of transition metal halides (such as YF ₃ ), metals Borides (such as C _r B ₂ or TiB ₂ ), alkali metal halides (such as LiCl, RbCl or CsI), metal sulfides (such as Li ₂ S, ZnS, Y ₂ S ₃ , FeS, MnS, Cu ₂ S, CuS and Sb ₂ S ₅ ), metal phosphides (such as Ca ₃ P ₂ ), transition metal halides (such as CrCl ₃ , ZnF ₂ , ZnBr ₂ , ZnI ₂ , MnCl ₂ , MnBr ₂ , MnI ₂ , CoBr ₂ , CoI) ₂ , CoCl ₂ , NiBr ₂ , NiF ₂ , FeF ₂ , FeCl ₂ , FeBr ₂ , TiF ₃ , CuBr, VF ₃ and CuCl ₂ ), metal halides (such as SnBr ₂ , SnI ₂ , InF, InCl, InBr, InI) _{, AgCl, AgI, A1I 3,} YF 3, CdCl 2, CdBr 2, CdI 2, InCl 3, ZrCl 4, NbF 5, TaCl 5, MoCl 3, MoCl 5, NbCl 5, AsCl 3, TiBr 4, SeCl ₂ , SeCl ₄ , InF ₃ , PbF ₄ and TeI ₄ ), metal oxides or hydroxides (such as Y ₂ O ₃ , FeO, NbO, In(OH) ₃ , As ₂ O ₃ , SeO ₂ , TeO ₂ , BI ₃ , CO ₂ , As ₂ Se ₃ ), metal nitrides (such as Mg ₃ N ₂ or AlN), metal phosphides (such as Ca ₃ P ₂ , SF ₆ , S, SbF ₃ , CF ₄ , NF ₃ , KMnO) ₄ , NaMnO ₄ , P ₂ O ₅ , LiNO ₃ , NaNO ₃ , KNO ₃ ) and metal borides (such as BBr ₃ ). Suitable oxidizing agents include at least one of the following: BaBr ₂ , BaCl ₂ , EuBr ₂ , EuF ₃ , YF ₃ , CrB ₂ , TiB ₂ , LiCl, RbCl, CsI, Li ₂ S, ZnS, Y ₂ S ₃ , Ca ₃ P ₂ , MnI ₂ , CoI ₂ , NiBr ₂ , ZnBr ₂ , FeBr ₂ , SnI ₂ , InCl, AgCl, Y ₂ O ₃ , TeO ₂ , CO ₂ , SF ₆ , S, CF ₄ , NaMnO ₄ , P ₂ O ₅ , LiNO ₃ . Suitable oxidizing agents include at least one of the following: EuBr ₂ , BaBr ₂ , CrB ₂ , MnI _2, and AgCl. Suitable sulfide oxidants include at least one of Li ₂ S, ZnS, and Y ₂ S ₃ . In certain embodiments, the oxide oxidant is Y ₂ O ₃ .

In other embodiments, each reaction mixture comprises at least one material selected from the group consisting of components (i)-(iii) of the above categories and further comprising (iv) at least one reducing agent selected from the group consisting of metals, such as alkali metals, Alkaline earth metals, transition metals, second and third series of transition metals and rare earth metals and aluminum. The reducing agent is preferably a reducing agent from the group consisting of Al , Mg , MgH ₂ , Si , La, B, Zr and Ti powders and H ₂ .

In other embodiments, each reaction mixture comprises at least one material selected from the group consisting of components (i)-(iv) of the above categories and further comprises (v) a carrier such as selected from the group consisting of AC, 1% Pt/carbon or Pd/ Conductive carrier of carbon (Pt/C, Pd/C) and carbide (preferably TiC or WC).

While the reactants may be in any molar ratio, they preferably have about the same molar ratio.

Suitable reaction systems comprising (i) a catalyst or catalyst source, (ii) a hydrogen source, (iii) an oxidizing agent, (iv) a reducing agent and (v) a carrier comprise NaH or KH as a catalyst or catalyst source and a source of H, BaBr ₂ , BaCl ₂ , MgBr ₂ , MgI ₂ , CaBr ₂ , EuBr ₂ , EuF ₃ , YF ₃ , CrB ₂ , TiB ₂ , LiCl, RbCl, CsI, Li ₂ S, ZnS, Y ₂ S ₃ , Ca ₃ P ₂ , MnI ₂ , CoI ₂ , NiBr ₂ , ZnBr ₂ , FeBr ₂ , SnI ₂ , InCl, AgCl, Y ₂ O ₃ , TeO ₂ , CO ₂ , SF ₆ , S, CF ₄ , NaMnO ₄ , P ₂ O ₅ , LiNO ₃ One serves as an oxidizing agent, Mg or MgH ₂ as a reducing agent (wherein MgH ₂ can also be used as a source of H), and AC, TiC or WC as a carrier. In the case where the tin halide is an oxidizing agent, the Sn product can be used as at least one of a reducing agent and a conductive carrier in the catalytic mechanism.

In another suitable reaction system comprising (i) a catalyst or catalyst source, (ii) a hydrogen source, (iii) an oxidant, and (iv) a support, NaH or KH is included as a catalyst or catalyst source and H source, EuBr ₂ , BaBr _{2. One} of CrB ₂ , MnI ₂ and AgCl is used as an oxidizing agent, and AC, TiC or WC is used as a carrier. While the reactants may be in any molar ratio, they preferably have about the same molar ratio.

The catalyst, hydrogen source, oxidant, reducing agent and carrier can be in any desired molar ratio. a metal halide, preferably a bromide or iodide (such as EuBr ₂ , BaBr) having a reactant, a catalyst comprising KH or NaH, comprising CrB ₂ , AgCl ₂ and a group derived from an alkaline earth metal, a transition metal or a rare earth metal halide. _In one embodiment of the oxidizing agent of at least one of ₂ and MnI ₂ ), the reducing agent comprising Mg or MgH ₂ , and the carrier comprising AC, TiC or WC, the molar ratio is substantially the same. The rare earth metal halide can be formed by direct reaction of the corresponding halogen with a metal or a hydrogen halide such as HBr. The dihalide can be formed from the trihalide by reduction of H ₂ .

Other oxidants are materials that have a high dipole moment or form an intermediate with a high dipole moment. During the catalytic reaction, materials having a high dipole moment are preferably susceptible to accepting electrons from the catalyst. These materials can have high electron affinity. In one embodiment, the electron acceptor has a semi-filled or approximately half-filled electron shell such as Sn, Mn, and Gd or Eu compounds each having a half-filled sp ³ , 3d, and 4f shell. The latter type of representative oxidizing agent is a metal corresponding to LaF ₃ , LaBr ₃ , GdF ₃ , GdCl ₃ , GdBr ₃ , EuBr ₂ , EuI ₂ , EuCl ₂ , EuF ₂ , EuBr ₃ , EuI ₃ , EuCl ₃ and EuF ₃ . In one embodiment, the oxidizing agent comprises a compound preferably having a non-metal (such as at least one of P, S, Si, and C) in a high oxidation state, and further comprising an atom having a high electronegativity, such as F, Cl, or At least one of O. In another embodiment, the oxidizing agent comprises a compound having a low oxidation state (such as the II state) of a metal (such as at least one of Sn and Fe) and further comprising an atom having a low electronegativity, such as at least Br or I One. a negatively charged ion (such as ) better than ions with two negative charges (such as or ). In one embodiment, the oxidizing agent comprises a compound such as a metal halide corresponding to a metal having a low melting point such that it can be melted as a reaction product and removed from the battery. Suitable oxidizing agents for the low melting point metals are halides of In, Ga, Ag and Sn. While the reactants may be in any molar ratio, they preferably have about the same molar ratio.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises: (i) a catalyst or catalyst source comprising a metal or hydride from a Group I element; (ii) a hydrogen source such as a hydrogen or hydrogen source or hydride; (iii) an oxidant Containing at least one from Group 13, Group 14, Group 15, Group 16, and 17, preferably selected from the group consisting of F, Cl, Br, I, B, C, N, O, Al, Si An atom or ion or compound of an element of the group of P, S, Se and Te; (iv) a reducing agent comprising an element or a hydride, preferably one or more selected from the group consisting of Mg, MgH ₂ , Al, Si, B, Zr and an element or hydride of a rare earth metal such as La; and (v) a support which preferably has electrical conductivity and preferably does not react with other materials of the reaction mixture to form another compound. Suitable supports preferably comprise carbon such as AC, graphene, carbon impregnated with a metal such as Pt/C or Pd/C, and carbides (preferably TiC or WC).

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises: (i) a catalyst or catalyst source comprising a metal or hydride from a Group I element; (ii) a hydrogen source such as a hydrogen or hydrogen source or hydride; (iii) an oxidant Which comprises a halide, an oxide or a sulfide compound, preferably a metal halide, an oxide or a sulfide, more preferably from Group IA, Group IIA, Group 3d, Group 4d, Group 5d, Day 6d a halide of an element of Group 7, 7d, 8d, 9d, 10d, 11d, 12d and a lanthanide element, and an optimum transition metal halide or lanthanide halide; a reducing agent comprising an element or a hydride, preferably one or more elements or hydrides selected from the group consisting of Mg, MgH ₂ , Al, Si, B, Zr and rare earth metals (such as La); and (v) a carrier It is preferably electrically conductive and preferably does not react with other materials of the reaction mixture to form another compound. Suitable supports preferably comprise carbon, such as AC, carbon impregnated with a metal (such as Pt/C or Pd/C) and carbides, preferably TiC or WC.

e. Exchange reaction, thermoreversible reaction and regeneration

In one embodiment, the oxidant can be reversibly reacted with at least one of a reducing agent, a catalyst source, and a catalyst. In one embodiment, the oxidizing agent is a halide, preferably a metal halide, more preferably at least one of a transition metal, tin, indium, an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, and a rare earth metal halide, and an optimum rare earth metal halide. The reversible reaction is preferably a halide exchange reaction. The reaction energy is preferably low such that the halide can be at least between the oxidant and the reducing agent, the catalyst source, and the catalyst at a temperature between ambient temperature and 3000 ° C, preferably between ambient temperature and 1000 ° C. Reversible exchange. The reaction equilibrium can be shifted to drive a low energy hydrogen reaction. It can be displaced by a change in temperature or a change in reaction concentration or ratio. The reaction can be maintained by the addition of hydrogen. In a representative reaction, the exchange is

Wherein n ₁ , n ₂ , x and y are integers, X is a halogen, and M _ox is a metal of an oxidizing agent, and M _red/cat is a metal of at least one of a reducing agent, a catalyst source and a catalyst. In one embodiment, the one or more reactants are hydrides and in addition to the halide exchange, the reaction further comprises a reversible hydride exchange. In addition to other reaction conditions (such as temperature and reactant concentration), the reversible reaction can also be controlled by controlling the hydrogen pressure. An exemplary response is

In one embodiment, an oxidizing agent (such as an alkali metal halide, an alkaline earth metal halide or a rare earth metal halide, preferably RbCl, BaBr ₂ , BaCl ₂ , EuX ₂ or GdX ₃ , wherein X is halogen or sulfur, preferably EuBr ₂ ) reacting with a catalyst or catalyst source (preferably NaH or KH) and optionally a reducing agent (preferably Mg or MgH ₂ ) to form a halide or sulfide of _Mox or _Mox H ₂ and a catalyst, such as NaX Or KX. The rare earth metal halide can be regenerated by selectively removing the catalyst or catalyst source and optionally a reducing agent. In an embodiment, M _ox H ₂ is thermally decomposable and the hydrogen is removed by a method such as suction. Halide exchange (Equation (54-55)) forms the metal of the catalyst. The metal can be removed in the form of a molten liquid or an evaporated or sublimed gas leaving a metal halide such as an alkaline earth metal or a rare earth metal halide. The liquid can be removed, for example, by a method such as centrifugation or by a pressurized inert gas stream. If appropriate, the catalyst or catalyst source can be rehydrogenated to regenerate the initial reactants, which are recombined with the rare earth metal halide and support into the initial mixture. In the case where Mg or MgH _{2 is} used as a reducing agent, Mg can be first removed by adding H _{2 to} form a hydride, melting the hydride and removing the liquid. X = F in one embodiment, performed by the rare earth metals (such as EuH ₂₎ F exchange, the product may be converted to MgF ₂ MgH _2, wherein the continuous removal of molten MgH _2. The reaction can be carried out under high pressure H ₂ to facilitate the formation and selective removal of MgH ₂ . The reducing agent can be rehydrogenated and added to other regeneration reactants to form the initial reaction mixture. In another embodiment, the exchange reaction is carried out between at least one of a metal sulfide or oxide of the oxidant and a reducing agent, a catalyst source, and a catalyst. One exemplary system of each type is 1.66 g KH + 1 g Mg + 2.74 g Y ₂ S ₃ + 4 g AC and 1 g NaH + 1 g Mg + 2.26 g Y ₂ O ₃ + 4 g AC.

The selective removal of the catalyst, catalyst source or reducing agent can be continuous wherein the catalyst, catalyst source or reducing agent can be at least partially recycled to the reactor. The reactor may further comprise a distiller or reflux assembly to remove the catalyst (such as distiller 34 of Figure 4), the catalyst source or reducing agent and return it to the battery. It may be hydrogenated or further reacted as appropriate and the product may be recovered. The reaction temperature can be cycled between the two extremes to continuously recycle the reactants by equilibrium shifting. In one embodiment, the system heat exchanger has the ability to rapidly vary the battery temperature between high and low values to shift the balance back and forth, thereby expanding the low energy hydrogen reaction.

The regeneration reaction may comprise a catalytic reaction with an added substance such as hydrogen. In one embodiment, the source of the catalyst and H is KH and the oxidant is EuBr ₂ . The heat-driven regeneration reaction can be

2KBr+Eu to EuBr ₂ +2K (56)

or

2KBr+EuH ₂ to EuBr ₂ +2KH. (57)

Alternatively, H ₂ can be used as a regenerative catalyst for catalysts or catalyst sources such as KH and EuBr ₂ and oxidants, respectively:

3KBr+1/2H ₂ +EuH ₂ to EuBr ₃ +3KH. (58)

Further, EuBr ₂ is formed by reducing EuBr ₃ by H ₂ . One possible route is

EuBr ₃ + 1/2H ₂ to EuBr ₂ + HBr. (59)

HBr can be recycled:

HBr+KH to KBr+H ₂ (60)

The total reaction formula is:

2KBr+EuH ₂ to EuBr ₂ +2KH. (61)

The rate of regenerative reaction of the heat drive can be increased by using different pathways known to those skilled in the art having lower energy:

2KBr+H ₂ +Eu to EuBr ₂ +2KH (62)

3KBr+3/2H ₂ +Eu to EuBr ₃ +3KH or (63)

EuBr ₃ + 1/2H ₂ to EuBr ₂ + HBr. (64)

The reaction given by equation (62) is possible because there is a balance between the metal and the corresponding hydride in the presence of H ₂ , such as

. (65)

The reaction pathway may comprise intermediate steps known to those skilled in the art having lower energy, such as

2KBr+Mg+H ₂ to MgBr ₂ +2KH and (66)

MgBr ₂ +Eu+H ₂ to EuBr ₂ +MgH ₂ . (67)

The KH or K metal can be removed in the form of a molten liquid or an evaporating or sublimating gas, leaving a metal halide such as an alkaline earth metal or a rare earth metal halide. The liquid can be removed by methods such as centrifugation or by a pressurized inert gas stream. In other embodiments, another catalyst or catalyst source (such as NaH, LiH, RbH, CsH, Na, Li, Rb, Cs) may be substituted for KH or K, and the oxidant may comprise another metal halide, such as another rare earth. A metal halide or an alkaline earth metal halide, preferably BaCl ₂ or BaBr ₂ .

In other embodiments, the thermally reversible reaction comprises other exchange reactions, preferably exchange reactions between two materials each comprising at least one metal atom. The exchange can take place between the metal of the catalyst, such as an alkali metal, and the metal of the exchange partner, such as an oxidant. Exchange can also be carried out between the oxidant and the reducing agent. The exchange substance may be an anion such as a halide, a hydrogen ion, an oxygen ion, a sulfur ion, a nitrogen ion, a boron ion, a carbon ion, a helium ion, an arsenic ion, a selenium ion, a phosphonium ion, a phosphorus ion, a nitrate, a hydrogen sulfide, Carbonate, sulfate, hydrogen sulfate, phosphate, hydrogen phosphate, dihydrogen phosphate, perchlorate, chromate, dichromate, cobaltate, and other oxygen anions and anions known to those skilled in the art. The at least one exchange partner may comprise an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, a transition metal, a second series of transition metals, a third series of transition metals, a noble metal, a rare earth metal, Al, Ga, In, Sn, As, Se, and Te. Suitable exchange anions are halides, oxygen ions, sulfur ions, nitrogen ions, phosphorus ions and boron ions. Suitable metals for exchange are alkali metals (preferably Na or K), alkaline earth metals (preferably Mg or Ba) and rare earth metals (preferably Eu or Dy), each in the form of a metal or hydride. Exemplary catalyst reactants and exemplary exchange reactions are given below. Such reactions are not intended to be exhaustive and those skilled in the art will be aware of other examples.

■4g AC3-3+1g Mg+1.66g KH+2.5g DyI ₂ , Ein: 135.0kJ, dE: 6.1kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 403°C, theoretical energy 1.89kJ, gain 3.22 times.

■4g AC3-3+1g Mg+1g NaH+2.09g EuF ₃ , Ein: 185.1kJ, dE: 8.0kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 463°C, theoretical energy is 1.69kJ, gain is 4.73 times,

■KH 8.3gm+Mg 5.0gm+CAII-300 20.0gm+CrB ₂ 3.7gm, Ein:317kJ, dE:19kJ, no TSC, Tmax is about 340°C, theoretical energy is 0.05kJ, and the gain is unlimited.

■ 0.70 g of TiB ₂ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-4) were used. The energy gain was 5.1 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 431 ° C and the theoretical energy is zero.

■ 0.42 g of LiCl, 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of AC3-4 were used. The energy gain was 5.4 kJ, but no battery temperature spike was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 412 ° C, the theoretical energy is 0, and the gain is infinite.

■ 1.21 g RbCl, 1.66 g KH, 1 g Mg powder, and 4 g AC3-4, the energy gain was 6.0 kJ, but no battery temperature jump was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 442 ° C and the theoretical energy is zero.

■4g AC3-5+1g Mg+1.66g KH+0.87g LiBr; Ein: 146.0kJ; dE: 6.24kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 439°C, theoretically endothermic,

■KH 8.3gm+Mg 5.0gm+CAII-300 20.0gm+YF ₃ 7.3gm; Ein: 320kJ; dE: 17kJ; no TSC, Tmax is about 340°C; energy gain is about 4.5X (X is about 0.74kJ*) 5=3.7kJ),

■NaH 5.0gm+Mg 5.0gm+CAII-300 20.0gm+BaBr ₂ 14.85gm (dry); Ein: 328kJ; dE: 16kJ; no TSC, Tmax is about 320°C; energy gain is 160X (X is about 0.02kJ) *5=0.1kJ),

■KH 8.3gm+Mg 5.0gm+CAII-300 20.0gm+BaCl ₂ 10.4gm; Ein: 331kJ; dE: 18kJ, no TSC, Tmax is about 320°C. The energy gain is about 6.9X (X is about 0.52 x 5 = 2.6kJ)

█NaH 5.0gm+Mg 5.0gm+CAII-300 20.0gm+MgI ₂ 13.9gm; Ein: 315kJ; dE: 16kJ, no TSC, Tmax is about 340°C. The energy gain is about 1.8X (X is about 1.75×5=8.75kJ)

▇4g AC3-2+1g Mg+1g NaH+0.97g ZnS; Ein: 132.1kJ; dE: 7.5kJ; TSC: none; Tmax: 370°C, theoretical energy 1.4kJ, gain 5.33 times,

■ 2.74 g of Y ₂ S ₃ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 5.2 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 444 ° C, the theoretical energy is 0.41 kJ, and the gain is 12.64 times.

■ 4g AC3-5+1g Mg+1.66g KH+1.82g Ca ₃ P ₂ ; Ein: 133.0kJ; dE: 5.8kJ; TSC: none; Tmax: 407°C, theoretically endothermic, gain infinite.

■20g AC3-5+5g Mg+8.3g KH+9.1g Ca ₃ P ₂ , Ein: 282.1kJ, dE: 18.1kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 320°C, theoretically endothermic, gain infinite.

In one embodiment, the thermal regeneration reaction system comprises: (i) at least one catalyst or catalyst source selected from the group consisting of NaH and KH; (ii) at least one hydrogen source selected from the group consisting of NaH, KH, and MgH ₂ ; (iii) at least one An oxidizing agent selected from the group consisting of alkaline earth metal halides such as BaBr ₂ , BaCl ₂ , BaI ₂ , CaBr ₂ , MgBr ₂ or MgI ₂ ; rare earth metal halides such as EuBr ₂ , EuBr ₃ , EuF ₃ , DyI ₂ , LaF ₃ Or GdF ₃ ; a second or third series of transition metal halides such as YF ₃ ; a metal boride such as CrB ₂ or TiB ₂ ; an alkali metal halide such as LiCl, RbCl or CsI; a metal sulfide such as Li ₂ S , ZnS or Y ₂ S ₃ ; a metal oxide such as Y ₂ O ₃ ; and a metal phosphide such as Ca ₃ P ₂ ; (iv) at least one reducing agent selected from Mg and MgH ₂ ; and (v) selected from Carrier of AC, TiC and WC.

f. getter, carrier or matrix assisted low energy hydrogen reaction

In another embodiment, the exchange reaction is an endothermic reaction. In such embodiments, the metal compound can be used as an advantageous carrier for a low energy hydrogen reaction or as a getter for a matrix or product to increase the rate of low energy hydrogen reaction. Exemplary catalyst reactants and exemplary carriers, matrices or getters are given below. Such reactions are not intended to be exhaustive and those skilled in the art will be aware of other examples.

■4g AC3-5+1g Mg+1.66g KH+2.23g Mg ₃ As ₂ , Ein: 139.0kJ, dE: 6.5kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 393°C, theoretically endothermic, gain infinite.

■20g AC3-5+5g Mg+8.3g KH+11.2g Mg ₃ As ₂ , Ein: 298.6kJ, dE: 21.8kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 315°C, theoretically endothermic, gain infinite.

■ 1.01g Mg ₃ N ₂ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g AC3-4 in a 1" large-capacity battery, the energy gain is 5.2kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature is observed. The maximum battery temperature is 401 °C, theory The energy is 0 and the gain is infinite.

■ In a 1" large-capacity battery, 0.41 g of AlN, 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder, and 4 g of AC3-5, the energy gain was 4.9 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature was 407 ° C, theoretically endothermic.

In one embodiment, the thermal regeneration reaction system comprises at least two components selected from the group consisting of (i)-(v): (i) at least one catalyst or catalyst source selected from the group consisting of NaH, KH, and MgH ₂ ; (ii) at least a hydrogen source selected from the group consisting of NaH and KH; (iii) at least one oxidant selected from a metal arsenide such as Mg ₃ As ₂ and a metal nitride such as Mg ₃ N ₂ or AlN, a matrix, a second carrier or a getter (iv) at least one reducing agent selected from the group consisting of Mg and MgH ₂ ; and (v) at least one carrier selected from the group consisting of AC, TiC or WC.

D. Liquid fuels: organic and molten solvent systems

Other embodiments include molten solids, such as molten salts or liquid solvents contained in chamber 200. The solvent can be vaporized by operating the battery at a temperature above the boiling point of the liquid solvent. The reactant such as a catalyst may be dissolved or suspended in a solvent, or the reactant forming the catalyst and H may be suspended or dissolved in a solvent. The vaporizing solvent can be used as a gas having a catalyst to increase the rate of reaction of the hydrogen catalyst forming low energy hydrogen. The molten solid or vaporized solvent can be maintained by heating with a heater 230. The reaction mixture may further comprise a solid support, such as an HSA material. The reaction can occur on the surface due to the interaction of the molten solid, liquid or gaseous solvent with the catalyst and hydrogen such as K or Li plus H or NaH. In one embodiment using a heterogeneous catalyst, the solvent of the mixture can increase the rate of catalyst reaction.

In an embodiment of the hydrogen containing, H ₂ can be bubbled through the solution. In another embodiment, the cell was pressurized to increase the concentration of dissolved H _2. In another embodiment, the reactants are preferably stirred at a high speed and at a temperature of about the boiling point of the organic solvent and about the melting point of the inorganic solvent.

The organic solvent reaction mixture may preferably be heated at a temperature ranging from about 26 ° C to 400 ° C, more preferably from about 100 ° C to 300 ° C. The inorganic solvent mixture can be heated to a temperature above the temperature at which the solvent is a liquid and below a temperature at which the NaH molecule is completely decomposed.

a. organic solvent

The organic solvent may comprise one or more moieties that can be modified to other solvents by the addition of functional groups. The moieties can comprise at least one of: hydrocarbons such as alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes, cyclic alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, heterocyclic hydrocarbons, and combinations thereof; ethers; halogenated hydrocarbons (fluorinated hydrocarbons, chlorinated hydrocarbons, brominated Hydrocarbon, iodide hydrocarbon), preferably fluorinated hydrocarbon; amine; thioether; nitrile; phosphoniumamine (for example, OP(N(CH ₃ ) ₂ ) ₃ ); and aminophosphazene. The group may comprise at least one of the group consisting of an alkyl group, a cycloalkyl group, an alkoxycarbonyl group, a cyano group, an amine carbaryl group, a heterocyclic ring containing C, O, N, S, a sulfonic acid group, an amine sulfonyl group. , alkoxysulfonyl, phosphonic acid, hydroxy, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, decyloxy, aryl, alkenyl, aliphatic, fluorenyl, carboxy, amine, cyanoalkane Oxyl, diazo, carboxyalkyl carboxylamido, alkenylthio, cyanoalkoxycarbonyl, aminecarboxyalkyloxycarbonyl, alkoxycarbonylamino, cyanoalkylamino, alkoxycarbonyl Amino, sulfonylalkylamino, alkylamine sulfonylalkylamine, oxyalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, carboxyalkylcarbonyloxy, cyanoalkyl, carboxyalkylthio, aryl Amino, heteroarylamine, alkoxycarbonyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, cyanoalkoxy, alkoxycarbonylalkoxy, aminecarboxyalkyloxy, aminecarakialkylcarbonyloxy, Sulfosylalkoxy, nitro, alkoxyaryl, haloaryl, aminoaryl, alkylaminoaryl, tolyl, alkenylaryl, allylaryl, alkenyloxy Base, allyloxyaryl, cyanoaryl, amine Mercaptoaryl, carboxyaryl, alkoxycarbonylaryl, alkylcarbonyloxyaryl, sulfonylaryl, alkoxysulfonylaryl, aminsulfonylaryl and nitroaryl . The group preferably comprises at least one of the group consisting of an alkyl group, a cycloalkyl group, an alkoxy group, a cyano group, a heterocyclic ring containing C, O, N, S, a sulfonic acid group, a phosphonic acid group, a halogen, an alkoxy group, Alkylthio, aryl, alkenyl, aliphatic, fluorenyl, alkylamino, alkylthio, arylamino, heteroarylamino, haloaryl, aminoaryl, alkylamine Alkaryl, alkenylaryl, allylaryl, alkenyloxy, allyloxyaryl and cyanoaryl.

In one embodiment comprising a liquid solvent, the catalyst NaH is at least one reaction mixture component and is formed from the reaction mixture. The reaction mixture may further comprise at least one of the group consisting of NaH, Na, NH ₃ , NaNH ₂ , Na ₂ NH, Na ₃ N, H ₂ O, NaOH, NaX (X is an anion, preferably a halide), R-Ni, HSA carrier, getter, dispersant, NaBH ₄ , NaAlH ₄ , Ni, platinum black, palladium black, R-Ni, doped Na substance (such as at least one of Na, NaOH and NaH) A hydrogen source such as H ₂ and a hydrogen dissociator. In other embodiments, Li, K, Rb, or Cs replaces Na. In one embodiment, the solvent has a halogen functional group, preferably fluorine. A suitable reaction mixture comprises at least one of hexafluorobenzene and octafluoronaphthalene, which is added to a catalyst such as NaH and mixed with a carrier such as activated carbon, fluoropolymer or R-Ni. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises one or more of the following groups: Na, NaH, a solvent, preferably a fluorinated solvent, and an HSA material. A suitable fluorinated solvent for regeneration is CF ₄ . Suitable carriers or HSA materials for fluorinated solvents and NaH catalysts are NaF. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises at least NaH, CF ₄ and NaF. Other fluorine-based carriers or getters include: M ₂ SiF ₆ , wherein M is an alkali metal such as NaSiF ₆ and K ₂ SiF ₆ ; MSiF ₆ , wherein M is an alkaline earth metal such as MgSiF ₆ , GaF ₃ , PF ₅ ; MPF ₆ , wherein M is an alkali metal; MHF ₂ , wherein M is an alkali metal such as NaHF ₂ and KHF ₂ ; K ₂ TaF ₇ , KBF ₄ , K ₂ MnF ₆ and K ₂ ZrF ₆ , wherein other similar compounds are expected to be used For example, a compound having another alkali metal or alkaline earth metal substitution, such as one of Li, Na or K, as an alkali metal.

b. Inorganic solvent

In another embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises at least one inorganic solvent. The solvent may additionally contain a molten inorganic compound such as a molten salt. The inorganic solvent can be molten NaOH. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a catalyst, a source of hydrogen, and an inorganic solvent of the catalyst. The catalyst can be at least one of NaH molecules, Li and K. The solvent may be at least one of a molten or molten salt or a eutectic, such as at least one of an alkali metal halide and a molten salt of a group of alkaline earth metal halides. The inorganic solvent of the NaH catalyst reaction mixture may comprise a low melting point eutectic such as a mixture of an alkali metal halide of NaCl and KCl. The solvent may be a low melting salt, preferably a Na salt such as NaI (660 ° C), NaAlCl ₄ (160 ° C), NaAlF ₄ and a compound of the same class as NaMX ₄ having a metal halide which is more stable than NaX (wherein M) At least one of a metal and X is a halogen. The reaction mixture may further comprise a carrier such as R-Ni.

The inorganic solvent of the Li catalyst reaction mixture may comprise a low melting point eutectic such as a mixture of an alkali metal halide of LiCl and KCl. The molten salt solvent may comprise a fluorine-based solvent that is stable to NaH. LaF _{3 has a} melting point of 1493 ° C and a NaF melting point of 996 ° C. The ball mill mixture having a suitable ratio of other fluorides as appropriate comprises a fluoride-salt solvent which is stable to NaH and preferably melts in the range of from 600 °C to 700 °C. In the molten salt embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a NaH+ salt mixture such as NaF-KF-LiF (11.5-42.0-46.5) MP = 454 °C, or a NaH+ salt mixture such as LiF-KF (52%-48%) MP= 492 ° C.

V. Regeneration system and reaction

A schematic of a system for recycling or regenerating fuel in accordance with the present invention is shown in FIG. In one embodiment, the by-product of the low energy hydrogen reaction comprises a metal halide MX, preferably NaX or KX. Further, the fuel recycler 18 (Fig. 4) includes a separator 21 that separates an inorganic compound such as NaX from a carrier. In one embodiment, the separator or component thereof includes a displacement or cyclone separator 22 that is separated based on the difference in material density. The other separator or component thereof includes a magnetic separator 23 in which magnetic particles such as nickel or iron are extracted by a magnet, and a non-magnetic substance such as MX flows through the separator. In another embodiment, the separator or component thereof comprises a differential product dissolution or suspension system comprising dissolved or suspended at least one component to the extent that the other component is dissolved or suspended to allow separation of the component solvent wash 25 24, and may further comprise a compound recovery system 26, such as solvent evaporator 27 and compound collector 28. Alternatively, the recovery system includes a precipitator 29 and a compound dryer and collector 30. In one embodiment, waste heat from turbine 14 and water condenser 16 shown in FIG. 2 is used to heat at least one of evaporator 27 and dryer 30 (FIG. 4). The heat for any other stage of the recycler 18 (Fig. 4) may contain this waste heat.

The fuel recycler 18 (Fig. 4) further includes an electrolyzer 31 that electrolyzes the recovered MX into a metal and a halogen gas or other halogenated product or halide. In one embodiment, electrolysis preferably occurs in the power reactor 36 from a melt, such as a co-melt. The electrolysis gas and the metal product are separately collected in the volatile gas collector 32 and the metal collector 33, and the metal collector 33 may further include a metal distiller or separator 34 in the case of the metal mixture. If the initial reactant is a hydride, the metal is hydrogenated by a hydrogenation reactor 35 comprising a battery 36 capable of making the pressure less than, above and equal to atmospheric pressure, and an inlet and outlet for the metal and hydride. 37. An inlet 38 for hydrogen supply and its valve 39, a hydrogen supply 40, an outlet 41 and its valve 42, a pump 43, a heater 44 and a pressure and temperature meter 45. In one embodiment, the hydrogen supply 40 comprises an aqueous electrolyzer having a hydrogen and oxygen separator. The separated metal product is at least partially halogenated in a halogenation reactor 46. The halogenation reactor 46 comprises a battery 47 capable of making the pressure less than, greater than, and equal to atmospheric pressure, an inlet for carbon supply, and an outlet 48 for the halogenated product. The inlet 49 for fluorine gas and its valve 50, a halogen gas supply 51, an air outlet 52 and its valve 53, a pump 54, a heater 55 and a pressure and temperature meter 56. The reactor preferably also contains a catalyst and other reactants to cause the metal 57 to become a product having the desired oxidation state and stoichiometric amount of halide. At least two of the metal or metal hydride, metal halide, support, and other initial reactants are combined in mixer 58 and recycled to boiler 10 for another power generation cycle.

In an exemplary low energy hydrogen and regeneration reaction, the reaction mixture comprises a NaH catalyst, Mg, MnI _2, and a support (activated carbon, WC or TiC). In one embodiment, the exothermic reaction source is a reaction in which a metal hydride is oxidized by MnI ₂ , such as

2 KH + MnI ₂ → 2 KI + Mn + H ₂ (86)

Mg + MnI ₂ → MgI ₂ + Mn . (87)

KI and MgI ₂ can be electrolyzed from molten salts to I ₂ , K and Mg. Melt electrolysis can be performed using a Downs cell or a modified Downs cell. Mn can be separated using a mechanical separator and optionally a sieve. Unreacted Mg or MgH ₂ can be separated by melting and by separating the solid phase from the liquid phase. The iodide for electrolysis may be derived from rinsing the reaction product with a suitable solvent such as deoxygenated water. The solution can be filtered to remove a carrier such as AC and, if appropriate, a transition metal. The solid can be centrifuged and preferably dried using waste heat from a power system. Alternatively, the halide can be separated by melting, followed by separation of the liquid phase from the solid phase. In another embodiment, the lighter AC can be separated from other reaction products by a process such as vortex separation. K is immiscible with Mg, and the separated metal such as K can be hydrogenated with hydrogen preferably from H ₂ O electrolysis. The metal iodide can be formed by a known reaction with a separated metal or with a metal that is not separated from the AC. In one embodiment, Mn is reacted with HI to form MnI ₂ and H ₂ , and H _{2 is} recycled and reacted with I ₂ to form HI. In other embodiments, other metals, preferably transition metals, replace Mn. Another reducing agent such as A1 can be substituted for Mg. Another halide, preferably a chloride, can be substituted for the iodide. LiH, KH, RbH or CsH can replace NaH.

In an exemplary low energy hydrogen and regeneration reaction, the reaction mixture comprises a NaH catalyst, Mg, AgCl, and a carrier activated carbon. In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is a reaction in which the metal hydride is oxidized by AgCl, such as

KH + AgCl → KCl + Ag +1/2 H ₂ (88)

Mg +2 AgCl → MgCl ₂ +2 Ag . (89)

KCl and MgCl ₂ can be electrolyzed from the molten salt into Cl ₂ , K and Mg. Melt electrolysis can be performed using a Towns cell or a modified Towns cell. Ag can be separated using a mechanical separator and, optionally, a sieve. Unreacted Mg or MgH ₂ can be separated by melting and by separating the solid phase from the liquid phase. The chloride for electrolysis can be obtained by rinsing the reaction product with a suitable solvent such as deoxygenated water. The solution can be filtered to remove a carrier such as AC and metal Ag as the case may be. The solid can be centrifuged and preferably dried using waste heat from a power system. Alternatively, the halide can be separated by melting, followed by separation of the liquid phase from the solid phase. In another embodiment, the lighter AC may initially be separated from other reaction products by methods such as vortex separation. K is immiscible with Mg, and the separated metal such as K can be hydrogenated with hydrogen preferably from H ₂ O electrolysis. Metal chlorides can be formed by known reactions with separated metals or with metals that are not separated from AC. In one embodiment, Ag reacts with Cl ₂ to form AgCl, and H _{2 is} recycled and reacts with I ₂ to form HI. In other embodiments, other metals, preferably transition metals or In, replace Ag. Another reducing agent such as Al can be substituted for Mg. Another halide, preferably a chloride, can be substituted for the iodide. LiH, KH, RbH or CsH can replace NaH.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture is regenerated from a low energy hydrogen reaction product. In an exemplary low energy hydrogen and regeneration reaction, the solid fuel reaction mixture comprises a KH or NaH catalyst, Mg or MgH ₂ and an alkaline earth metal halide (such as BaBr ₂ ) and a support (activated carbon, WC or preferably TiC). In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is a metal hydride or a reaction in which the metal is oxidized by BaBr ₂ , such as

2 KH + Mg + BaBr ₂ → 2 KBr + Ba + MgH ₂ (90)

2 NaH + Mg + BaBr ₂ → 2 NaBr + Ba + MgH ₂ . (91)

The melting points of Ba, Mg, MgH ₂ , NaBr and KBr are 727 ° C, 650 ° C, 327 ° C, 747 ° C and 734 ° C, respectively. Thus, by addition of H ₂ optionally in maintaining of MgH _2, the priority of MgH ₂ and the molten liquid is separated from the reaction product mixture, may be any of MgH ₂ and barium Ba-Mg intermetallic separated. It can be thermally decomposed into Mg as appropriate. The remaining reaction product can then be added to the electrolytic melt. The solid support and Ba precipitate form a preferred separable layer. Alternatively, Ba may be separated in liquid form by melting. NaBr or KBr then be electrolyzed to form an alkali metal and Br _2. The latter (Br ₂ ) reacts with Ba to form BaBr ₂ . Alternatively, Ba is an anode and BaBr _{2 is} formed directly in the anode chamber. The alkali metal can be formed in this chamber after hydrogenation or by bubbling H ₂ in the cathode chamber during electrolysis. Next, MgH ₂ or Mg, NaH or KH, BaBr ₂ and the carrier are re-adjusted to the reaction mixture. In other embodiments, another alkaline earth metal halide replaces BaBr ₂ , preferably BaCl ₂ . In another embodiment, the regeneration reaction can occur without electrolysis because the energy difference between the reactants and the product is small. The reaction given by equation (90-91) can be reversed by changing the reaction conditions, such as temperature or hydrogen pressure. Alternatively, a molten or volatile material such as K or Na can be selectively removed to drive the reaction back to regenerate the reactants or materials that can be further reacted and added back to the cell to form the initial reaction mixture. In another embodiment, the volatile material can be continuously refluxed to maintain a reversible reaction between the catalyst or catalyst source (such as NaH, KH, Na or K) and the initial oxidant (such as an alkaline earth metal halide or a rare earth metal halide). In one embodiment, reflux is achieved using a distiller such as distiller 34 shown in FIG. In another embodiment, reaction conditions such as temperature or hydrogen pressure can be varied to reverse the reaction. In this case, the reaction is initially carried out to the direction in which the low energy hydrogen and the reaction mixture product are formed. The product other than the lower energy hydrogen is then converted to the initial reactant. This can be performed by varying the reaction conditions and possibly adding or removing at least a portion of the product or reactant or other product or reactant that is identical to the product or reactant originally used or formed. Therefore, the positive reaction and the regeneration reaction are alternately cycled. Hydrogen can be added to replace the hydrogen consumed in forming low energy hydrogen. In another embodiment, reaction conditions such as high temperatures are maintained, wherein the reversible reaction is optimized such that both positive and negative reactions occur in a manner that achieves a desired, preferably maximum, low energy hydrogen formation rate.

In an exemplary low energy and hydrogen in the regeneration reaction, the reaction mixture comprising the solid fuel NaH catalyst, Mg, FeBr ₂ and the carrier activated carbon. In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is a reaction in which the metal hydride is oxidized by FeBr ₂ , such as

2 NaH + FeBr ₂ →2 NaBr + Fe + H ₂ (92)

Mg + FeBr ₂ → MgBr ₂ + Fe . (93)

NaBr and MgBr ₂ can be electrolyzed from a molten salt into Br ₂ , Na and Mg. Melt electrolysis can be performed using a Towns cell or a modified Towns cell. Fe is ferromagnetic and can be magnetically separated using a mechanical separator and, optionally, a sieve. In another embodiment, ferromagnetic Ni can be substituted for Fe. Unreacted Mg or MgH ₂ can be separated by melting and by separating the solid phase from the liquid phase. The bromide for electrolysis can be obtained by rinsing the reaction product with a suitable solvent such as deoxygenated water. The solution can be filtered to remove a carrier such as AC and, if appropriate, a transition metal. The solid can be centrifuged and preferably dried using waste heat from a power system. Alternatively, the halide can be separated by melting, followed by separation of the liquid phase from the solid phase. In another embodiment, the lighter AC may initially be separated from other reaction products by methods such as vortex separation. Na is immiscible with Mg, and the separated metal such as Na can be hydrogenated with hydrogen preferably from H ₂ O electrolysis. The metal bromide can be formed by a known reaction with a separated metal or with a metal that is not separated from the AC. In one embodiment, Fe reacts with HBr to form FeBr ₂ and H ₂ , and H _{2 is} recycled and reacted with Br ₂ to form HBr. In other embodiments, other metals, preferably transition metals, replace Fe. Another reducing agent such as Al can be substituted for Mg. Another halide, preferably a chloride, can be substituted for the bromide. LiH, KH, RbH or CsH can replace NaH.

In an exemplary low energy and hydrogen in the regeneration reaction, the reaction mixture comprising the solid fuel the catalyst NaH or KH, Mg or MgH _2, SnBr ₂ and a carrier (active carbon, the WC or TiC). In one embodiment, the exothermic reaction source is a metal hydride or a reaction in which the metal is oxidized by SnBr ₂ , such as

2 KH + SnBr ₂ → 2 KBr + Sn + H ₂ (94)

2 NaH + SnBr ₂ → 2 NaBr + Sn + H ₂ (95)

Mg + SnBr ₂ → MgBr ₂ + Sn . (96)

The melting points of tin, magnesium, MgH ₂ , NaBr and KBr are 119 ° C, 650 ° C, 327 ° C, 747 ° C and 734 ° C, respectively. As given in the alloy phase diagram, for about 5 wt% Mg, the tin-magnesium alloy will melt at temperatures in excess of, for example, 400 °C. In one embodiment, the metal tin and magnesium and the alloy are separated from the support and the halide by melting the metal and alloy and separating the liquid phase from the solid phase. The alloy can be reacted with H ₂ at a temperature at which MgH ₂ solids and tin metal are formed. The solid phase and the liquid phase can be separated to obtain MgH ₂ and tin. MgH ₂ can be thermally decomposed into Mg and H ₂ . Alternatively, the selectively any unreacted Mg, and any of the Sn-Mg alloy into a solid MgH ₂ and the temperature of the liquid tin, H ₂ may be added in situ to the reaction product. The tin can be selectively removed. The MgH ₂ can then be heated and removed in liquid form. The halide can then be removed from the support by methods such as: (1) melting and separating the phases; (2) vortex separation based on density differences, wherein a dense carrier such as WC is preferred; or (3) screening based on size differences . Alternatively, the halide can be dissolved in a suitable solvent and the liquid phase and solid phase separated by methods such as filtration. The liquid can be evaporated and then the halide can be electrolyzed from the melt to an immiscible and separately separated metal Na or K and possibly Mg. In another embodiment, K is formed by reducing the halide using a metal Na regenerated by sodium halide electrolysis, preferably forming the same halide as in a low energy hydrogen reactor. Further, a halogen gas such as Br ₂ is collected from the electrolytic melt, and reacted with the separated Sn to form SnBr ₂ , SnBr _{2 is} recycled, and another cycle of low-energy hydrogen reaction is performed together with NaH or KH and Mg or MgH ₂ , Wherein the hydride is formed by hydrogenation with hydrogen. In one embodiment, forming HBr and HBr react with Sn, forming SnBr _2. HBr can be formed by the reaction of Br ₂ with H ₂ or by bubbling at the anode H ₂ during electrolysis, which has the advantage of reducing the electrolysis energy. In other embodiments, another metal replaces Sn, preferably a transition metal, and another halide can replace Br, such as I.

In another embodiment, in the initial step, all of the reaction products are reacted with an aqueous solution of HBr, and the solution is concentrated to precipitate SnBr ₂ from the MgBr ₂ and KBr solutions. Other suitable solvents and separation methods can be used to separate the salts. MgBr ₂ and KBr are then electrolyzed to Mg and K. Alternatively, Mg or MgH _{2 is} first removed using mechanical methods or by solvent selection such that only KBr requires electrolysis. In one embodiment, Sn is removed from the solid MgH ₂ as a melt, and the solid MgH ₂ may be formed by adding H ₂ during or after the low energy hydrogen reaction. MgH ₂ or Mg, KBr and a carrier are then added to the electrolytic melt. The carrier settles to the deposition zone due to the large particle size. MgH ₂ and KBr form part of the melt and are separated based on density. Mg and K are immiscible, and K also forms a separate phase, so that Mg and K are collected separately. The anode can be Sn such that K, Mg and SnBr ₂ are electrolysis products. Tin anode may be a liquid, or a liquid tin may be sprayed on the anode is formed to react with bromine and SnBr _2. In this case, the energy gap for regeneration is the higher element gap of the compound gap pair corresponding to the elemental product on the two electrodes. In another embodiment, the reactant comprises KH, a support, and SnI ₂ or SnBr ₂ . Sn can be removed in liquid form, and the remaining products such as KX and the support can be added to the electrolytic melt, wherein the support is separated based on density. In this case, a dense carrier such as WC is preferred.

The reactants may comprise an oxygen compound to form an oxide product, such as an oxide of a catalyst or catalyst source (such as an oxide of NaH, Li or K) and an oxide of a reducing agent (such as Mg, MgH ₂ , Al, Ti, B, Zr or La oxide). In one embodiment, the reactants are regenerated by reacting an oxide with an acid, such as a hydrohalic acid, preferably hydrochloric acid, to form a corresponding halide, such as a chloride. In one embodiment, the oxidized carbon species (such as carbonates, bicarbonates), carboxylic acid species (such as oxalic acid or oxalate) can be reduced by metal or metal hydride. Preferably, at least one of Li, K, Na, LiH, KH, NaH, Al, Mg, and MgH ₂ reacts with a substance comprising carbon and oxygen, and forms a corresponding metal oxide or hydroxide and carbon. Each respective metal can be regenerated by electrolysis. Electrolysis can be performed using a molten salt such as in a eutectic mixture. A halogen gas electrolysis product, such as chlorine, can be used to form the corresponding acid, such as HCl, as part of the regeneration cycle. The hydrohalic acid HX can be formed by reacting a halogen gas with hydrogen and optionally dissolving a hydrogen halide gas in water. Hydrogen is preferably formed by electrolysis of water. Oxygen can be the reactant of a low energy hydrogen reaction mixture or a source of oxygen that can react to form a low energy hydrogen reaction mixture. The step of reacting the oxide low energy hydrogen reaction product with an acid can comprise rinsing the product with an acid to form a solution comprising the metal salt. In one embodiment, the low energy hydrogen reaction mixture and the corresponding product mixture comprise a support, such as carbon, preferably activated carbon. The metal oxide can be separated from the support by dissolving the metal oxide in an aqueous acid solution. Thus, the product can be rinsed with an acid and can be further filtered to separate the components of the reaction mixture. Water can be removed by the use of heat, preferably waste heat evaporation from the power system, and a salt such as a metal chloride can be added to the electrolytic mixture to form a metal and a halogen gas. In one embodiment, any methane or hydrocarbon product may reform hydrogen and optionally carbon or carbon dioxide. Alternatively, the methane is separated from the gaseous product mixture and sold as a commercial product. In another embodiment, methane can be formed into other hydrocarbon products by methods known in the art, such as the Fischer-Tropsch reaction. The formation of methane can be suppressed by the addition of interfering gases, such as inert gases, and by maintaining adverse conditions, such as reduced hydrogen pressure or temperature.

In another embodiment, the metal oxide is electrolyzed directly from the eutectic mixture. An oxide such as MgO can react with water to form a hydroxide such as Mg(OH) ₂ . In one embodiment, the hydroxide is reduced. The reducing agent can be an alkali metal or a hydride such as Na or NaH. The product hydroxide can be directly electrolyzed as a molten salt. Low energy hydrogen reaction products, such as alkali metal hydroxides, can also be used as commercial products and the corresponding halides are obtained. The halide can then be electrolyzed into a halogen gas and a metal. Halogen gas can be used as a commercial industrial gas. The metal can be hydrogenated with hydrogen, preferably water electrolyzed, and supplied to the reactor as part of a low energy hydrogen reaction mixture.

Using familiar methods and systems known to the art, from the corresponding compound comprising, preferably NaOH or Na ₂ O of a reducing agent regeneration products, such as alkali metal. A method comprises electrolysis in a mixture such as a eutectic mixture. In another embodiment, the reduced product may comprise at least some oxides, such as a reduced metal oxide (eg, MgO). The hydroxide or oxide is soluble in a weak acid such as hydrochloric acid to form the corresponding salt, such as NaCl or MgCl ₂ . Treatment with an acid may also be an anhydrous reaction. The gas can flow at low pressure. The salt can be treated with a product reducing agent such as an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal to form an initial reducing agent. In one embodiment, the second reducing agent is an alkaline earth metal, preferably Ca, wherein the NaCl or MgCl _{2 is} reduced to the metal Na or Mg. The CaCl _{2 by} -product is recovered and also recycled. In an alternative embodiment, the oxide reduction with H ₂ at high temperature.

In an exemplary low energy hydrogen, and regeneration reaction, the reaction mixture containing the catalyst NaH, MgH _2, O _2, and an activated carbon carrier. In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is a reaction in which the metal hydride is oxidized by O ₂ , such as

MgH ₂ + O ₂ → Mg ( OH ) ₂ (97)

MgH ₂ +1.5 O ₂ + C → MgCO ₃ + H ₂ (98)

NaH +3/2 O ₂ + C → NaHCO ₃ (99)

2 NaH + O ₂ → 2 NaOH . (100)

Any MgO product can be converted to hydroxide by reaction with water

MgO + H ₂ O → Mg ( OH ) _{2 .} (101)

Sodium or magnesium carbonates, bicarbonates, and other materials containing carbon and oxygen can be reduced with Na or NaH:

NaH + Na ₂ CO ₃ →3 NaOH + C +1/ H ₂ (102)

_{NaH +1/3 MgCO 3 → NaOH +1/3 C} +1/3 Mg. (103)

Reduction of Mg(OH) ₂ to Mg using Na or NaH:

2 Na + Mg ( OH ) ₂ → 2 NaOH + Mg . (104)

The NaOH can then be electrolyzed directly from the melt to metal Na and NaH and O ₂ . The Castner process can be used. Suitable cathodes and anodes for alkaline solutions are nickel. The anode can also be carbon, a noble metal such as Pt, a support such as Ti coated with a noble metal such as Pt, or a dimensionally stable anode. In another embodiment, by reaction with HCl, NaOH into NaCl, NaCl electrolysis where gas may be Cl ₂ H ₂ from the electrolysis of water with the reaction to form HCl. Molten NaCl electrolysis can be performed using a Downs electrolytic cell or a modified Downs electrolytic cell. Alternatively, HCl can be produced by chloralkali electrolysis. The aqueous NaCl solution used for this electrolysis can be obtained by washing the reaction product with an aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid. The solution can be filtered to remove a carrier such as AC, and the carrier can be centrifuged and preferably dried using waste heat from a power system.

In one embodiment, the reaction step comprises: (1) rinsing the product with an aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid, forming a metal chloride from a substance such as a hydroxide, an oxide, and a carbonate; (2) by using a water gas shift reaction and Fischer - the toropsch reaction is carried out for H ₂ reduction, converting any released CO ₂ to water and C, wherein C is recycled as a carrier in step 10 and water can be used in steps 1, 4 or 5; (3) filtration and Drying a carrier such as AC, wherein drying may include a step of centrifuging; (4) electrolyzing water to H ₂ and O ₂ to supply steps 8 to 10; (5) electrolyzing from an aqueous NaCl solution, optionally forming H ₂ and HCl to supply step 1 and 9; (6) separated and dried metal chlorides; (7) of a metal chloride electrolysis of the melt and a metal chloride; (8) by reaction of Cl ₂ with H ₂ to form HCl, to Supply step 1; (9) hydrogenating any metal to form a corresponding starting reactant by reacting with hydrogen; and (10) forming an initial reaction mixture by adding O ₂ from step 4 or using O ₂ separated from the atmosphere .

In another embodiment, at least one of magnesium oxide and magnesium hydroxide is electrolyzed from the melt to Mg and O ₂ . The melt can be a NaOH melt in which Na can also be electrolyzed. In one embodiment, such as carbonates and bicarbonates of carbon oxides may be decomposed into CO and CO ₂ for at least one of which may be added to the reaction mixture as an oxygen source. Alternatively, carbon oxide species such as CO ₂ and CO may be reduced to hydrogen and water by hydrogen. CO ₂ and CO can be reduced by a water gas shift reaction and a Fischer-Tropsch reaction.

In an exemplary low energy hydrogen, and regeneration reaction, the reaction mixture containing the catalyst NaH, MgH _2, CF ₄ and activated carbon carrier. In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is a reaction in which the metal hydride is oxidized by CF ₄ , such as

2 MgH ₂ + CF ₄ → C +2 MgF ₂ +2 H ₂ (105)

2 MgH ₂ + CF ₄ → CH ₄ +2 MgF ₂ (106)

4 NaH + CF ₄ → C +4 NaF +2 H ₂ (107)

4 NaH + CF ₄ → CH ₄ +4 NaF . (108)

MgF ₂ and NaF may be additionally comprising HF into the molten salt electrolysis F _2, Na, and Mg. Na is immiscible with Mg, and the separated metal can be hydrogenated with hydrogen preferably from H ₂ O electrolysis. Fluorine gas can be reacted with carbon and any CH ₄ reaction product to regenerate CF ₄ . Alternatively and preferably, the anode of the electrolytic cell contains carbon and maintains current and electrolysis conditions such that CF ₄ is the anodic electrolysis product.

In an exemplary low energy hydrogen, and regeneration reaction, the reaction mixture containing the catalyst _{NaH, MgH 2, P 2 O 5} (P 4 O 10) and a carrier of activated carbon. In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is a reaction in which the metal hydride is oxidized by P ₂ O ₅ , such as

_{5 MgH 2 + P 2 O 5} → 5 MgO +2 P +5 H 2 (109)

5 NaH + P ₂ O ₅ → 5 NaOH + 2 P . (110)

Phosphorus can be converted to P ₂ O ₅ by burning in O ₂

2 P +2.5 O ₂ → P ₂ O ₅ . (111)

Converting MgO products to hydroxides by reaction with water

MgO + H ₂ O → Mg ( OH ) ₂ . (112)

Reduction of Mg(OH) ₂ to Mg using Na or NaH:

2 Na + Mg ( 0H ) ₂ → 2 NaOH + Mg . (113)

The NaOH can then be directly electrolyzed from the melt to metal Na and NaH and O ₂ , or can be converted to NaCl by reaction with HCl, wherein the NaCl electrolysis gas Cl ₂ can react with H ₂ from water electrolysis to form HCl. In an embodiment, preferably by reaction with H ₂ from the electrolysis of water, can be converted to a metal, such as Na and Mg of the respective hydrides.

In an exemplary low energy and hydrogen in the regeneration reaction, the reaction mixture comprising the solid fuel the catalyst NaH, MgH _2, NaNO _3, and an activated carbon carrier. In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is a reaction in which the metal hydride is oxidized by NaNO ₃ , such as

NaNO ₃ + NaH + C → Na ₂ CO ₃ +1/2 N ₂ +1/2 H ₂ (114)

NaNO ₃ +1/2 H ₂ +2 NaH →3 NaOH +1/2 N ₂ (115)

NaNO ₃ +3 MgH ₂ →3 MgO + NaH +1/2 N ₂ +5/2 H ₂ . (116)

Sodium or magnesium carbonates, bicarbonates, and other materials containing carbon and oxygen can be reduced with Na or NaH:

NaH + Na ₂ CO ₃ →3 NaOH + C +1/ H ₂ (117)

_{NaH +1/3 MgCO 3 → NaOH +1/3 C} +1/3 Mg. (118)

Carbonates can also be decomposed into hydroxides and CO ₂ from aqueous media.

Na ₂ CO ₃ + H ₂ O → 2 NaOH + CO ₂ . (119)

Using the water gas shift reaction and the Fischer-Tropsch reaction, the released CO ₂ can be reacted to form water and C by H ₂ reduction.

CO ₂ + H ₂ → CO + H ₂ O (120)

CO + H ₂ → C + H ₂ O . (121)

Converting MgO products to hydroxides by reaction with water

MgO + H ₂ O → Mg ( OH ) ₂ . (122)

Reduction of Mg(OH) ₂ to Mg using Na or NaH:

2 Na + Mg ( OH ) ₂ → 2 NaOH + Mg . (123)

The alkali metal nitrate can be regenerated using methods known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, the industry by known methods, such as by the Haber process, followed by Oslo NO ₂ generated Wald holding method. In an embodiment, the exemplary sequence of steps is:

In particular, the Haber process can be used to produce NH ₃ from N ₂ and H ₂ using a catalyst such as alpha iron containing an oxide at elevated temperatures and pressures. Ostwald method may be used to heat, such as platinum or platinum - rhodium catalyst of the catalyst to the ammoxidation NO _2. The heat can be waste heat from the power system. NO ₂ is soluble in water to form nitric acid, which reacts with NaOH, Na ₂ CO ₃ or NaHCO ₃ to form sodium nitrate. The remaining NaOH can then be directly electrolyzed from the melt to metal Na and NaH and O ₂ , or converted to NaCl by reaction with HCl, wherein the NaCl electrolysis gas Cl ₂ can react with H ₂ from water electrolysis to form HCl. In an embodiment, preferably by reaction with H ₂ from the electrolysis of water, can be converted to a metal, such as Na and Mg of the respective hydrides. In other embodiments, Li and K replace Na.

In an exemplary low energy hydrogen, and regeneration reaction, the reaction mixture containing the catalyst NaH, MgH _2, SF ₆ and a carrier of activated carbon. In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is a reaction in which the metal hydride is oxidized by SF ₆ , such as

4 MgH ₂ + SF ₆ →3 MgF ₂ +4 H ₂ + MgS (125)

7 NaH + SF ₆ → 6 NaF +3 H ₂ + NaHS . (126)

NaF and MgF ₂ and sulfide may be electrolyzed into Na and Mg from a molten salt which may additionally contain HF. The fluorine electrolysis gas can react with the sulfide to form an SF ₆ gas that can be removed by power. SF _{6 can be} separated from F ₂ by methods known in the art, such as cryogenic distillation, membrane separation or chromatography, using a medium such as a molecular sieve. NaHS melts at 350 ° C and can be part of a molten electrolysis mixture. Any MgS product can react with Na to form NaHS, where the reaction can occur in situ during electrolysis. S and the metal may be products formed during electrolysis. Alternatively, the metal may be a few, so as to form the more stable fluoride may be added, or F _2, forms a fluoride.

3 MgH ₂ + SF ₆ →3 MgF 2+3 H ₂ + S (127)

6 NaH + SF 6→6 NaF +3 H ₂ + S . (128)

NaF and MgF ₂ can be electrolyzed into F ₂ , Na and Mg by a molten salt which may additionally contain HF. Na is immiscible with Mg, and the separated metal can be hydrogenated with hydrogen preferably replenished by H ₂ O electrolysis. Fluorine gas can react with sulfur to regenerate SF ₆ .

In an exemplary low energy hydrogen, and regeneration reaction, the reaction mixture containing the catalyst NaH, MgH _2, NF ₃ and the activated carbon carrier. In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is a reaction in which the metal hydride is oxidized by NF ₃ , such as

3 MgH ₂ +2 NF ₃ →3 MgF ₂ +3 H ₂ + N ₂ (129)

6 MgH ₂ +2 NF ₃ →3 MgF ₂ + Mg ₃ N ₂ +6 H ₂ (130)

3 NaH + NF ₃ → 3 NaF + 1/2 N ₂ + 1.5 H ₂ . (131)

NaF and MgF ₂ can be electrolyzed into F ₂ , Na and Mg by a molten salt which may additionally contain HF. The conversion of Mg ₃ N ₂ to MgF ₂ can occur in the melt. Na is immiscible with Mg, and the separated metal can be hydrogenated with hydrogen preferably from H ₂ O electrolysis. Preferably, the fluorine gas may be NH ₃ in the reaction with the copper packaging reactor, forming NF _3. Ammonia can be produced by the Haber method. Alternatively, NF ₃ can be formed by electrolysis of NH ₄ F in anhydrous HF.

In an exemplary low energy and hydrogen in the regeneration reaction, the reaction mixture comprising the solid fuel the catalyst _{NaH, MgH 2, Na 2 S 2} O 8 and a carrier of activated carbon. In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is a reaction in which the metal hydride is oxidized by Na ₂ S ₂ O ₈ , such as

8 MgH ₂ + Na ₂ S ₂ 0 ₈ →2 MgS +2 NaOH +6 MgO +6 H ₂ (132)

7 MgH ₂ + Na ₂ S ₂ O ₈ + C →2 MgS + Na ₂ CO ₃ +5 MgO +7 H ₂ (133)

10 NaH + Na ₂ S ₂ O ₈ →2 Na ₂ S +8 NaOH + H ₂ (134)

9 NaH + Na ₂ S ₂ O ₈ + C → 2 Na ₂ S + Na ₂ CO ₃ + 5 NaOH + 2 H ₂ . (135)

Any MgO product can be converted to hydroxide by reaction with water

MgO + H ₂ O → Mg ( OH ) ₂ . (136)

Sodium or magnesium carbonates, bicarbonates, and other materials containing carbon and oxygen can be reduced with Na or NaH:

N aH + Na ₂ CO ₃ →3 NaOH + C +1/ H ₂ (137)

_{NaH +1/3 MgCO 3 → NaOH +1/3 C} +1/3 Mg. (138)

MgS can be burned in oxygen, hydrolyzed, exchanged with Na to form sodium sulfate, and electrolyzed to Na ₂ S ₂ O ₈

2 MgS +10 H ₂ O +2 NaOH → Na ₂ S ₂ O ₈ +2 Mg ( OH ) ₂ +9 H ₂ . (139)

Na ₂ S can be burned in oxygen, hydrolyzed to sodium sulfate, and electrolyzed to form Na ₂ S ₂ O ₈

2 Na ₂ S +10 H ₂ O → Na ₂ S ₂ O ₈ +2 NaOH +9 H ₂ . (140)

Reduction of Mg(OH) ₂ to Mg using Na or NaH:

2 Na + Mg ( OH ) ₂ → 2 NaOH + Mg . (141)

The NaOH can then be directly electrolyzed from the melt to metal Na and NaH and O ₂ , or can be converted to NaCl by reaction with HCl, wherein the NaCl electrolysis gas Cl ₂ can react with H ₂ from water electrolysis to form HCl.

In an exemplary low energy and hydrogen in the regeneration reaction, the reaction mixture comprising the solid fuel the catalyst NaH, MgH _2, S and a carrier of activated carbon. In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is a reaction in which the metal hydride is oxidized by S, such as

MgH ₂ + S → MgS + H ₂ (142)

2 NaH + S → Na ₂ S + H ₂ . (143)

Converting magnesium sulfide to hydroxide by reaction with water

MgS +2 H ₂ O → Mg ( OH ) ₂ + H ₂ S . (144)

H ₂ S can be decomposed at high temperatures or used to convert SO ₂ to S. Sodium sulfide can be converted to hydroxide by combustion and hydrolysis

Reduction of Mg(OH) ₂ to Mg using Na or NaH:

2 Na + Mg ( OH ) ₂ → 2 NaOH + Mg . (146)

The NaOH can then be directly electrolyzed from the melt to metal Na and NaH and O ₂ , or can be converted to NaCl by reaction with HCl, wherein the NaCl electrolysis gas Cl ₂ can react with H ₂ from water electrolysis to form HCl. SO ₂ can be reduced using H ₂ at high temperatures

SO ₂ +2 H ₂ S →3 S +2 H ₂ O . (147)

In an embodiment, preferably by reaction with H ₂ from the electrolysis of water, can be converted to a metal, such as Na and Mg of the respective hydrides. In other embodiments, S and metal can be regenerated by electrolysis from the melt.

In an exemplary low energy hydrogen, and regeneration reaction, the reaction mixture containing the catalyst NaH, MgH _2, N ₂ O and active carbon support. In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is a reaction in which the metal hydride is oxidized by N ₂ O, such as

4 MgH ₂ + N ₂ O → MgO + Mg ₃ N ₂ +4 H ₂ (148)

NaH +3 N ₂ O + C → NaHCO ₃ +3 N ₂ +1/2 H ₂ . (149)

Converting MgO products to hydroxides by reaction with water

MgO + H ₂ O → Mg ( OH ) ₂ . (150) Magnesium nitride can also be hydrolyzed to magnesium hydroxide:

Mg ₃ N ₂ +6 H ₂ O →3 Mg ( OH ) ₂ +3 H ₂ + N ₂ . (151)

Sodium carbonate, bicarbonate and other substances containing carbon and oxygen can be reduced with Na or NaH:

NaH + Na ₂ CO ₃ →3 NaOH + C +1/ H ₂ . (152)

Reduction of Mg(OH) ₂ to Mg using Na or NaH:

2 Na + Mg ( OH ) ₂ → 2 NaOH + Mg . (153)

The NaOH can then be directly electrolyzed from the melt to metal Na and NaH and O ₂ , or can be converted to NaCl by reaction with HCl, wherein the NaCl electrolysis gas Cl ₂ can react with H ₂ from water electrolysis to form HCl. Ammonia (equation (124)) by the Haber process of oxidation and facilitate the control of the temperature produced N ₂ O, N ₂ O and that the steady state of the reaction mixture was separated from the other gaseous products.

In the illustrated embodiment hydrogen, and low energy regeneration reaction, the reaction mixture containing the catalyst NaH, MgH _2, Cl ₂ and a carrier, such as activated carbon, the WC or TiC. The reactor may further comprise high-energy light, preferably ultraviolet light source so that the dissociation Cl _2, low energy hydrogen reaction initiator. In one embodiment, the source of the exothermic reaction is a reaction in which the metal hydride is oxidized by Cl ₂ , such as

2 NaH + Cl ₂ →2 NaCl + H ₂ (154)

MgH ₂ + Cl ₂ → MgCl ₂ + H ₂ . (155)

NaCl and MgCl ₂ can be electrolyzed from molten salts to Cl ₂ , Na and Mg. Molten NaCl electrolysis can be performed using a Downs electrolytic cell or a modified Downs electrolytic cell. The NaCl used for this electrolysis can be obtained by rinsing the reaction product with an aqueous solution. The solution can be filtered to remove a carrier such as AC, and the carrier can be centrifuged and preferably dried using waste heat from a power system. Na is immiscible with Mg, and the separated metal can be hydrogenated with hydrogen preferably from H ₂ O electrolysis. An illustrative result is as follows:

■ 4g WC+1g MgH ₂ +1g NaH+0.01mol Cl ₂ , initiated by UV lamp to dissociate Cl ₂ into Cl, Ein: 162.9kJ, dE: 16.0kJ, TSC: 23-42°C, Tmax: 85°C, The theoretical energy is 7.10 kJ and the gain is 2.25 times.

The catalyst or catalyst source (such as NaH, K or Li or its hydride), a reducing agent (such as an alkali metal or hydride, preferably Mg, MgH ₂ or Al) and an oxidant (such as NF ₃ ) may be included by electrolysis. The reactants are regenerated. The metal fluoride product preferably regenerates the metal and fluorine gas by electrolysis. The electrolyte can comprise a eutectic mixture. The mixture may further comprise HF. NF ₃ can be regenerated by electrolysis of NH ₄ F in anhydrous HF. In another embodiment, NH ₃ and F ₂ in the reaction, such as a reactor of the reactor in a copper package. F ₂ can be produced by electrolysis using a dimensionally stable anode or a carbon anode using conditions conducive to F ₂ production. SF ₆ can be regenerated by reacting S with F ₂ . Any metal nitride that can be formed in a low-energy hydrogen reaction can be regenerated by at least one of the following methods: thermal decomposition, H ₂ reduction, oxidation to an oxide or hydroxide, and reaction to form a halide, followed by electrolysis and in a metal halide. Reacts with the halogen gas during the melt electrolysis. NCl ₃ may be formed by reacting ammonia with chlorine or by reacting an ammonium salt such as NH ₄ Cl with chlorine. Chlorine gas can be produced by electrolysis of a chloride salt such as a chloride salt from a product reaction mixture. NH ₃ can be formed using the Haber process, in which hydrogen can be derived from electrolysis of preferred water. In one embodiment, by making NH ₃ with an ammonium salt (such as NH ₄ Cl) in the reaction with at least one chlorine, NCl ₃ formed in situ in the reactor. In one embodiment, by making BiF ₃ may be reacted with a metal fluoride F is formed of electrolytic _2, BiF ₅ so that regeneration.

In one embodiment where the source of oxygen or halogen is used as a reactant for the exothermic activation reaction, the oxide or halide product is preferably regenerated by electrolysis. The electrolyte may comprise a eutectic mixture such as Al ₂ O ₃ and Na ₃ AlF ₆ ; MgF ₂ , NaF and HF; Na ₃ AlF ₆ ; NaF, SiF ₄ and HF; and a mixture of AlF ₃ , NaF and HF. Electrolysis of SiF ₄ into Si and F ₂ can be derived from an alkali metal fluoride eutectic mixture. Since Mg and Na have low miscibility, they can be separated in the melt phase. Since Al and Na have low miscibility, they can be separated in the melt phase. In another embodiment, the electrolysis product can be separated by distillation. In another embodiment, CO and TiCl _{4 are} formed by reaction with C and Cl ₂ , and TiCl _{4 is} further reacted with Mg to form Ti and MgCl _{2 to} regenerate Ti ₂ O ₃ . Mg and Cl ₂ can be regenerated by electrolysis. In the case where MgO is a product, Mg can be regenerated by the Pidgeon process. In one embodiment, MgO is reacted with Si to form SiO ₂ and Mg gas, and the Mg gas is condensed. The product SiO ₂ can be regenerated by performing H ₂ reduction at a high temperature or by reacting with carbon to form Si and CO and CO ₂ . In another embodiment, Si is regenerated by electrolysis using a method such as electrolysis of solid oxides in molten calcium chloride. In one embodiment, a chlorate or perchlorate such as an alkali metal chlorate or perchlorate is regenerated by electrolytic oxidation. The brine can be electrolytically oxidized to chlorate and perchlorate.

To regenerate the reactants, any oxide coating on the metal support that can be formed can be removed by dilute acid after separation from the reactant or product mixture. In another embodiment, the carbide is reacted with carbon to produce a carbide while releasing carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide.

The solvent may be separated from other reactants or products to be regenerated by removing the solvent using evaporation or by filtering or centrifuging under the retained solids, in the case where the reaction mixture contains a solvent. In the presence of other volatile components such as alkali metals, the components can be selectively removed by heating to a suitable elevated temperature to cause the components to evaporate. For example, a metal such as metal Na is collected by distillation and a carrier such as carbon remains. Na can be rehydrogenated to NaH and returned to the carbon with added solvent to regenerate the reaction mixture. The isolated solid, such as R-Ni, can also be regenerated separately. The isolated R-Ni can be hydrogenated by exposure to hydrogen at a pressure in the range of 0.1 to 300 atm.

The solvent can be regenerated in the case where the solvent is decomposed during the reaction of the catalyst forming low-energy hydrogen. For example, the decomposition products of DMF may be dimethylamine, carbon monoxide, formic acid, sodium formate, and formaldehyde. In one embodiment, dimethylformamide is produced by catalytic reaction of dimethylamine with carbon monoxide in methanol or by reaction of methyl formate with dimethylamine. Dimethylformamide can also be prepared by reacting dimethylamine with formic acid.

In one embodiment, an exemplary ether solvent can be regenerated from the product of the reaction mixture. Preferably, the reaction mixture and conditions are selected such that the rate of ether reaction is minimized relative to the rate at which low energy hydrogen is formed, so that any ether degradation is negligible relative to the energy produced by the low energy hydrogen reaction. Therefore, the ether can be added back as needed to remove the ether degradation product. Alternatively, the ether and reaction conditions can be selected such that the ether reaction product can be separated and the ether regenerated.

An embodiment comprises at least one of the following: HSA is a fluoride, HSA is a metal, and the solvent is fluorinated. The metal fluoride can be the reaction product. Metal and fluorine gas can be produced by electrolysis. The electrolyte may comprise a fluoride such as NaF, MgF ₂ , AlF ₃ or LaF ₃ , and may additionally comprise at least one other substance (such as HF) which lowers the melting point of the fluoride, and other salts, such as those disclosed in U.S. Patent No. 5,427,657. Excess HF can dissolve LaF ₃ . The electrode can be carbon, such as graphite, and can also form fluorocarbons as desired degradation products. In one embodiment, a carbon coated metal or alloy, preferably a nanopowder powder (such as carbon coated Co, Ni, Fe, other transition metal powders or alloys) and a metal coated carbon, preferably a nanopowder powder (such as a transition) At least one of the metal or alloy coated carbon, preferably at least one of Ni, Co, Fe, and Mn coated carbon, comprises magnetic particles. The magnetic particles can be separated from the mixture (such as a mixture of fluoride and carbon such as NaF) by using a magnet. The collected particles can be recycled as part of a reaction mixture that forms low energy hydrogen.

In one embodiment, the catalyst or catalyst source (such as NaH) and the fluorinated solvent are regenerated from the product comprising NaF by separating the product, followed by electrolysis. The method of separating NaF may be to rinse the mixture with a polar solvent having a low boiling point, followed by one or more filtrations and evaporation to produce a NaF solid. Electrolysis can be molten salt electrolysis. The molten salt can be a mixture, such as a eutectic mixture. The mixture preferably comprises NaF and HF as are known in the art. Metal sodium and fluorine gas can be collected by electrolysis. Na can react with H to form NaH. The fluorine gas can react with the hydrocarbon to form a fluorinated hydrocarbon that can be used as a solvent. The HF fluorinated product can be returned to the electrolysis mixture. Alternatively, hydrocarbons and carbon products (such as benzene and graphitic carbon, respectively) can be fluorinated and returned to the reaction mixture. The carbon can be cracked into smaller fluorinated fragments having a lower melting point by methods known in the art for use as a solvent. The solvent may comprise a mixture. The degree of fluorination can be used as a method of controlling the rate of hydrogen catalytic reaction. In one embodiment, using a carbon electrode by electrolysis of a molten fluoride salt, preferably an alkali metal fluoride, or by reaction of carbon dioxide with fluorine gas to produce CF _4. Any CF ₄ and hydrocarbon products can also be fluorinated to CF ₄ and fluorocarbons.

Suitable methods for fluorinating HSA materials and for fluorinating carbon to form such HSA materials are those known in the art, such as U.S. Patent No. 3,929,920, U.S. Patent No. 3,925,492, U.S. Patent No. 3,925,263, The materials and methods disclosed in U.S. Patent No. 4,886,921. Other methods include: the preparation of a polyfluorinated dicarbon as disclosed in U.S. Patent No. 4,139,474; the disclosure of the disclosure of the disclosure of U.S. Patent No. 4,447,663; A method of preparing a polyfluorinated two-carbon graphite fluoride represented by the formula (C ₂ F) _n ; a method of preparing a polyfluorocarbon as disclosed in U.S. Patent No. 3,925,263; A method of preparing a graphite fluoride; a method of preparing a polyfluorinated dicarbon as disclosed in U.S. Patent No. 4,243,615; the preparation of graphite fluoride by a contact reaction between carbon and fluorine gas as disclosed in U.S. Patent No. 4,438,086 A method of preparing a fluorinated graphite as disclosed in U.S. Patent No. 3,929,918; a method of preparing a polyfluorocarbon as disclosed in U.S. Patent No. 3,925,492; and, as Lagow et al., JCS Dalton, 1268 (1974). A mechanism for providing a novel synthesis method for graphite-fluorochemicals is disclosed, wherein the materials disclosed in the literature contain HSA species. In consideration of the corrosion of fluorine gas, Monel metal, nickel, steel or copper may be used as a material of the reactor. Carbon materials include amorphous carbon (such as carbon black, petroleum coke, petroleum pitch coal char and charcoal), and crystalline carbon (such as natural graphite, graphene and artificial graphite), Fu and nano tubes, preferably single-walled nanotubes . Preferably, Na is not inserted into the carbon support or forms an acetylide. These carbon materials can be used in various forms. Although the general powdery carbon material preferably has an average particle diameter of not more than 50 μm, a larger average particle diameter is also suitable. In addition to powdered carbon, other forms are also suitable. The carbon material can be in the form of blocks, spheres, strips and fibers. The reaction can be carried out in a reactor selected from the group consisting of a fluidized bed type reactor, a rotary kiln type reactor, and a tray column type reactor.

In another embodiment, an additive is used to regenerate the fluorinated carbon. Also by the inorganic reactant (such as CoF ₃₎ outside the cell or in situ carbon fluoride. The reaction mixture may further comprise an inorganic fluorinated reactant source, such as one of Co, CoF, CoF ₂ and CoF ₃ , which may be added to the reactor and regenerated, or it may be formed during operation of the battery The reaction mixture of low energy hydrogen and possibly another reagent, such as fluorine gas, is formed under the fluorinated catalytic metal (such as Pt or Pd) as the case may be. The additive may be NH ₃ which forms NH ₄ F. At least one of carbon and hydrocarbon can be fluorinated by reaction with NH ₄ F. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture further comprises HNaF _2, HNaF ₂ may be reacted with the carbon-carbon fluoride. The fluorocarbon can be formed in situ or external to the low energy hydrogen reactor. Fluorocarbons can be used as solvents or HSA materials.

In an embodiment wherein at least one of the solvent, carrier or getter comprises fluorine, the product may comprise carbon, and a fluoride of the catalyst metal, such as NaHF ₂ , in the case where the solvent or support is a fluorinated organic. NaF. This is a product obtainable other than a lower energy hydrogen product (such as a molecular low energy hydrogen gas) that can be evolved or collected. Using F _2, may be carbon etch gas is CF _4, CF ₄ gas may be used in another cycle power generation reaction of the reactants. The remaining product of NaF and NaHF ₂ can be electrolyzed to Na and F ₂ . Na can react with hydrogen to form NaH, and F ₂ can be used to etch the carbon product. NaH, NaF and residual CF ₄ may be combined to form another cycle power generation reaction of the low-energy hydrogen. In other embodiments, Li, K, Rb or Cs may be substituted for Na.

VI. Other Liquid and Non-Uniform Fuel Examples

In the present invention, the "liquid solvent embodiment" includes any reaction mixture and a corresponding fuel (such as a liquid fuel and a non-homogeneous fuel) containing a liquid solvent.

In another embodiment comprising a liquid solvent, the reaction between Na in the form of a metal, ion or molecule and at least one other compound or element provides one of atomic sodium and molecular NaH. The source of Na or NaH may be at least one of: metal Na; an inorganic compound containing Na such as NaOH; and other suitable Na compounds such as NaNH ₂ , Na ₂ CO ₃ and Na ₂ O, NaX (X is a halogen), and NaH(s). Other elements may be H, a displacer or a reducing agent. The reaction mixture may comprise at least one of: (1) a solvent; (2) a sodium source such as Na(m), NaH, NaNH ₂ , Na ₂ CO ₃ , Na ₂ O, NaOH, R-Ni doped with NaOH, NaX (X is a halogen) and Na-doped R-Ni; (3) a hydrogen source such as hydrogen and a dissociator and a hydride; (4) a displacer such as an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal, preferably Li; a reducing agent such as at least one of: a metal (such as an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, a lanthanide metal, a transition metal (such as Ti), aluminum, B), a metal alloy (such as AlHg, NaPb, NaAl, LiAl) and alone or A source of metal combined with a reducing agent (such as an alkaline earth metal halide, a transition metal halide, an lanthanide halide, and an aluminum halide). The alkali metal reducing agent is preferably Na. Other suitable reducing agents include metal hydrides such as LiBH ₄ , NaBH ₄ , LiAlH ₄ or NaAlH ₄ . The reducing agent is preferably reacted with NaOH to form NaH molecules and Na products such as Na, NaH(s) and Na ₂ O. The NaH source may be R-Ni comprising NaOH and a reactant such as a reducing agent forming a NaH catalyst, such as an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal or an Al meson of R-Ni. Other exemplary agent is an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal and an oxidant, such as _{AlX 3, MgX 2, LaX 3} , CeX 3 and TiX _n, wherein X is halogen, preferably Br or I. Additionally, the reaction mixture may comprise another compound containing a getter or dispersant, such as at least one of Na ₂ CO ₃ , Na ₂ SO ₄ and Na ₃ PO ₄ which may be doped into a dissociator such as R-Ni. By. The reaction mixture can further comprise a support, wherein the support can be doped with at least one reactant of the mixture. The support preferably has a large surface area which facilitates the production of a NaH catalyst from the reaction mixture. The carrier may comprise at least one of the group consisting of: R-Ni, Al, Sn, Al ₂ O ₃ (such as gamma, beta or alpha alumina, sodium aluminate (beta alumina exists in other ions such as Na ⁺ and has Ideally composed of Na ₂ O ‧11 Al ₂ O ₃ )), lanthanide oxides (such as M ₂ O ₃ (preferably M = La, Sm, Dy, Pr, Tb, Gd and Er)), Si, dioxide Bismuth, citrate, zeolite, lanthanide metal, transition metal, metal alloy (such as alkali metal and alkaline earth metal and Na alloy), rare earth metal, SiO ₂ -Al ₂ O ₃ or SiO ₂ supported Ni and other supporting metals (such as at least one of platinum, palladium or rhodium supported by alumina). The support may have a high surface area and comprise a high surface area (HSA) material such as R-Ni, zeolite, silicate, aluminate, alumina, alumina nanoparticles, porous Al ₂ O ₃ , Pt/Al ₂ O ₃ , Ru/Al ₂ O ₃ or Pd/Al ₂ O ₃ , carbon, Pt/C or Pd/C, inorganic compounds (such as Na ₂ CO ₃ , cerium oxide and zeolitic materials, preferably Y zeolite powder) and carbon ( Such as Fu or nano tube). In one embodiment, a support such as Al ₂ O ₃ (and an Al ₂ O ₃ support of the dissociator (if present)) is reacted with a reducing agent such as a lanthanide to form a surface modifying support. In one embodiment, the surface Al is exchanged with a lanthanide to form a carrier substituted with a lanthanide. This support may be doped with a source of NaH molecules, such as NaOH, and reacted with a reducing agent such as a lanthanide. Subsequent reaction of the lanthanide-substituted support with the lanthanide does not cause a significant change, and the surface-doped NaOH can be reduced to the NaH catalyst by reaction with the reducing agent lanthanide. In other embodiments given herein, Li, K, Rb or Cs may be substituted for Na.

In one embodiment of the liquid containing solvent comprising a NaH catalyst source in the reaction mixture, the NaH source can be a Na alloy and a hydrogen source. The alloy may comprise at least one alloy known in the art, such as metallic sodium and one or more other alkali or alkaline earth metals, transition metals, Al, Sn, Bi, Ag, In, Pb, Hg, Si, Zr, B, An alloy of Pt, Pd or other metal, and the source of H may be H ₂ or a hydride.

Reagents such as NaH molecular source, sodium source, NaH source, hydrogen source, displacer, and reducing agent are in any desired molar ratio. Each has a molar ratio greater than zero and less than 100%. The molar ratios are preferably similar.

In a liquid solvent embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a solvent, a source of Na or Na, a source of NaH or NaH, a source of metal hydride or metal hydride, a reactant or reactant source that forms a metal hydride, a hydrogen dissociator, and hydrogen. At least one substance in the group of sources. The reaction mixture may further comprise a carrier. The reactant forming the metal hydride may comprise a lanthanide, preferably La or Gd. In one embodiment, La reversibly react with NaH to form LaH _{n (n} = 1,2,3). In one embodiment, the hydride exchange reaction forms a NaH catalyst. The reversible general reaction can be given by

The reaction given by equation (156) applies to the other MH type catalysts given in Table 2. The reaction can be carried out under the formation of hydrogen, which can be dissociated to form atomic hydrogen, which reacts with Na to form a NaH catalyst. The dissociator is preferably at least one of Pt/Al ₂ O ₃ powder, Pd/Al ₂ O ₃ powder or Ru/Al ₂ O ₃ powder, Pt/Ti and R-Ni. The dissociator carrier such as Al ₂ O ₃ preferably comprises at least surface La substituted Al or comprises Pt/M ₂ O ₃ powder, Pd/M ₂ O ₃ powder or Ru/M ₂ O ₃ powder, wherein M is a lanthanide. The dissociator can be separated from the rest of the reaction mixture, with the atom H passing through the separator.

A suitable liquid solvent embodiment comprises a reaction mixture of a solvent, NaH, La, and Pd/Al ₂ O ₃ powder, wherein in one embodiment, NaH and hydrazine hydride are separated by filtration, by addition of H ₂ , by screening, The reaction mixture is regenerated by heating the hydrogenated hydrazine to form La and mixing La with NaH. Alternatively, the regeneration includes a step of separating Na from the hydrazine hydride by melting Na and removing the liquid, heating the hydrazine to form La, hydrogenating Na to NaH, mixing La with NaH, and adding a solvent. La and NaH can be mixed by ball milling.

In a liquid solvent embodiment, a high surface area material such as R-Ni is doped with NaX (X = F, Cl, Br, I). The doped R-Ni is reacted with a reagent that will displace the halogen to form at least one of Na and NaH. In one embodiment, the reactant is at least one alkali metal or alkaline earth metal, preferably at least one of K, Rb, Cs. In another embodiment, the reactant is an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal hydride, preferably at least one of KH, RbH, CsH, MgH ₂ and CaH ₂ . The reactants can be both alkali metal and alkaline earth metal hydrides. The reversible general reaction can be given by

D. Other MH type catalysts and reactions

In general, the MH bond cleavage plus the t electrons from the atom M to each of the continuous energy levels is shown in Table 2 such that the sum of the bond energy and the t electron ionization energies is about m ‧27.2 eV (where m is an integer) Providing a MH type hydrogen catalyst that produces low energy hydrogen. Each MH catalyst is shown in the first row and the corresponding MH bond energy is shown in row 2. The atom M of the MH species shown in the first row is ionized to provide a net reaction of m ‧27.2 eV plus the bond energy of the second row. The catalyst 焓 shown in the eighth row, where m is shown in the ninth row. The ionization potential (also known as ionization energy or binding energy) of the electrons involved in ionization is shown. For example, the NaH bond energy of 1.9245 eV is given in the second row. The ionization potential of the nth electron of an atom or ion is called IP _n and is indicated by CRC. That is, for example, Na + 5.13908 eV → Na ⁺ + e ^- and Na ^{+ +} 47.2864 eV → Na ²⁺ + e ^- . The first ionization potential IP ₁ = 5.13908 eV and the second ionization potential IP ₂ = 47.2864 eV are given in the second and third rows, respectively. The net reaction Na of NaH bond cleavage and Na secondary ionization is 54.35 eV as shown in the eighth row and as shown in the ninth row, m = 2 in equation (36). Further, as shown in the exemplary equation (23), H can react with each of the MH molecules shown in Table 2 to form a low-energy hydrogen having a quantum number p increased by 1 with respect to the catalyst reaction product of MH alone (Equation (35) ).

VIII. Hydrogen discharge power source and plasma battery and reactor

The hydrogen discharge power source and plasma battery and reactor of the present invention are shown in FIG. The hydrogen discharge power source and plasma battery and reactor of FIG. 5 include a gas discharge battery 307 comprising a glow-filled vacuum vessel 315 having a chamber 300 filled with hydrogen. Hydrogen source 322 supplies hydrogen to chamber 300 via oxygen supply passage 342 via control valve 325. The catalyst is housed in the battery chamber 300. Voltage and current source 330 causes current to pass between cathode 305 and anode 320. The current can be commutative.

In an embodiment, the material of the cathode 305 can be a catalyst source such as Fe, Dy, Be or Pd. In another embodiment of a hydrogen discharge power source and a plasma battery and reactor, the vessel wall 313 is electrically conductive and serves as a cathode for the replacement electrode 305, and the anode 320 can be hollow, such as a stainless steel hollow anode. The discharge vaporizes the catalyst source into a catalyst. Molecular hydrogen can be dissociated by a discharge to form a hydrogen atom for generating low energy hydrogen and energy. Additional dissociation can be provided by the hydrogen dissociator in the chamber.

Another embodiment of catalyzing a hydrogen discharge power source and a plasma battery and reactor in the gas phase utilizes a controllable gaseous catalyst. By discharging the molecular hydrogen gas, a gas hydrogen atom for conversion to low energy hydrogen is provided. The gas discharge battery 307 has a catalyst supply passage 341 that transfers the gaseous catalyst 350 from the catalyst reservoir 395 to the reaction chamber 300. Catalyst reservoir 395 is heated by catalyst reservoir heater 392 having a power source 372 to provide a gaseous catalyst to reaction chamber 300. The catalyst vapor pressure is controlled by adjusting the temperature of the catalyst reservoir 395 by adjusting the heater 392 via the power source 372. The reactor further includes a selective venting valve 301. A chemically resistant open container (such as stainless steel, tungsten or ceramic boat) located inside the gas discharge battery may contain a catalyst. The catalyst in the catalyst boat can be heated using a boat heater using an associated power source to provide a gaseous catalyst to the reaction chamber. Alternatively, the glow gas discharge cell operates at a high temperature such that the catalyst in the boat sublimes, boils or volatilizes into a gas phase. The catalyst vapor pressure is controlled by adjusting the temperature of the boat or the discharge battery by adjusting the heater with a power source. To prevent condensation of the catalyst in the cell, the temperature is maintained above the temperature of the catalyst source, catalyst reservoir 395 or catalyst boat.

In one embodiment, the catalysis occurs in the gas phase, lithium is the catalyst, and the source of lithium (such as metallic lithium) or lithium compound (such as LiNH ₂ ) is maintained by maintaining the battery temperature in the range of about 300-1000 ° C. Becomes a gaseous state. The battery is preferably maintained in the range of about 500-750 °C. The atomic hydrogen and/or molecular hydrogen reactants can be maintained at a pressure in the range of less than atmospheric pressure, preferably from about 10 millitorr to about 100 torr. The pressure is best determined by maintaining the mixture of lithium metal and lithium hydride in the battery at the desired operating temperature. The operating temperature range is preferably in the range of about 300-1000 ° C, and the pressure is preferably the pressure achieved by the battery over an operating temperature range of about 300-750 ° C. A heating coil powered by power source 385 (such as 380 of Figure 5) can control the battery at the desired operating temperature. The battery can further include an internal reaction chamber 300 and an external hydrogen reservoir 390 such that hydrogen can be supplied to the battery by diffusing hydrogen through the walls 313 separating the two chambers. The wall temperature can be controlled by a heater to control the rate of diffusion. The rate of diffusion can be further controlled by controlling the pressure of hydrogen in the hydrogen reservoir.

Reaction in a group having Li, LiN H ₂ , Li ₂ NH, Li ₃ N, LiNO ₃ , LiX, NH ₄ X (X is a halide), NH ₃ , LiBH ₄ , LiAlH ₄ and H ₂ In another embodiment of the system of mixtures, at least one reactant is regenerated by the addition of one or more reagents and by plasma regeneration. The plasma may be one of gases such as NH ₃ and H ₂ . The plasma can be maintained in situ (in the reaction cell) or in an external battery in communication with the reaction cell. In other embodiments, K, Cs, and Na are substituted for Li, wherein the catalyst is atom K, atom Cs, and molecular NaH.

To maintain the catalyst pressure to the desired extent, the battery that will permeate as a source of hydrogen can be sealed. Alternatively, the battery further includes a high temperature valve at each inlet or outlet such that the valve contacting the reactive gas mixture is maintained at the desired temperature.

By adiabatic the battery and by applying supplemental heater power with heater 380, the plasma battery temperature can be independently controlled over a wide range. Therefore, the catalyst vapor pressure can be controlled independently of the plasma power source.

The discharge voltage can range from about 100 to 10,000 volts. The current can be in any desired range at the desired voltage. In addition, the plasma can be pulsed at any desired frequency range, compensation voltage, peak voltage, peak power, and waveform.

In another embodiment, the plasma may be present in a liquid medium such as a catalyst or a solvent for the reactants of the material as a source of the catalyst.

IX. Fuel cells and battery packs

In the embodiment of the fuel cell and battery pack 400 illustrated in Figure 6, the low energy hydrogen reactant comprising a solid fuel or a heterogeneous catalyst comprises reactants for performing a corresponding half reaction of the battery. During operation, the catalyst reacts with atomic hydrogen and energy transfer causes ionization of the catalyst. This reaction can occur in the anode chamber 402 such that the anode 410 eventually receives ionized electron current. At least one of Li , K and NaH can be used as a catalyst for forming low energy hydrogen. The reaction step of non-radiative energy transfer of atomic hydrogen to an integral multiple of 27.2 eV of the catalyst produces an ionizing catalyst and free electrons. A carrier such as AC can be used as a conductive electron acceptor in electrical contact with the anode. The final electron acceptor reactant comprises an oxidant such as a free radical or its source and a source of positively charged counterions which act as a component of the cathode cell reaction mixture and ultimately remove electrons released from the reaction of the low energy hydrogen catalyst. . The oxidant or cathode battery reaction mixture is located in a cathode chamber 401 having a cathode 405. The oxidizing agent is preferably at least one of an oxygen or oxygen source, a halogen (preferably F ₂ or Cl ₂ ) or a halogen source CF ₄ , SF ₆ and NF ₃ . During operation, counter ions such as catalyst ions can migrate to the anode chamber, preferably via salt bridge 420 to the cathode chamber. Each cell reaction may be supplemented by additional reactants, or the product may be removed via channels 460 and 461 to the reactant source or reservoirs 430 and 431 for storing the product.

In certain embodiments, the power, chemistry, battery, and fuel disclosed herein are disclosed herein in addition to merely replacing the hydrogen consumed in the formation of low energy hydrogen, regenerating the reactants and maintaining the reaction to form lower energy hydrogen. The battery system can be closed, wherein the hydrogen fuel consumed can be obtained from water electrolysis.

X. Chemical reactor

The present invention is also directed to other reactors for producing hydrogen compounds of the present invention having increased binding energy, such as di-low energy hydrogen molecules and low energy hydrogen hydride compounds. Other catalytic products are electricity and, where appropriate, plasma and light, depending on the type of battery. Such a reactor is hereinafter referred to as a "hydrogen reactor" or a "hydrogen battery." The hydrogen reactor contains a battery for generating low energy hydrogen. The battery for generating low energy hydrogen may take the form of a chemical reactor or a gas fuel cell such as a gas discharge battery, a plasma torch battery or a microwave battery. Illustrative embodiments of batteries for producing low energy hydrogen can take the form of liquid fuel cells, solid fuel cells, and non-uniform fuel cells. Each of the batteries comprises: (i) an atomic hydrogen source; (ii) at least one catalyst selected from the group consisting of solid catalysts for producing low energy hydrogen, molten catalysts, liquid catalysts, gaseous catalysts or mixtures thereof; and (iii) hydrogen and The catalyst reacts to produce a container of low energy hydrogen. As used herein and as encompassed by the present invention, unless stated otherwise, the term "hydrogen" not only include protium ⁽¹ H), but also include deuterium ⁽² H), and tritium ⁽³ H). In the case where hydrazine is used as a reactant for the low energy hydrogen reaction, a relatively trace amount of the non-uniform fuel and the ruthenium or osmium product of the solid fuel are desired.

In an embodiment of a chemical reactor for synthesizing a compound comprising a lower energy hydrogen (such as a low energy hydrogen hydride), Fe having a positive oxidation state, being replaced by an iron counter ion and H ^- (1- p) The iron salt of the reaction (preferably iron carbide, iron oxide or a volatile iron salt such as FeI ₂ or FeI ₃ ) is synthesized into a low energy hydrogen hydride film. The catalyst can be K, NaH or Li. H may be derived from H ₂ and a dissociator such as R-Ni or Pt/Al ₂ O ₃ . In another embodiment, the iron low energy hydrogen hydride is derived from an iron source (such as an iron halide that decomposes at the operating temperature of the reactor), a catalyst (such as NaH, Li or K), and a hydrogen source (such as hydrogen) and a dissociator. Formation (such as R-Ni). The manganese low energy hydrogen hydride can be derived from a manganese source (such as an organometallic that decomposes at the operating temperature of the reactor, such as manganese (II) 2,4-glutarate), a catalyst (such as NaH, Li or K), and a source of hydrogen (such as Hydrogen) and a dissociator (such as R-Ni) are formed. In one embodiment, the reactor is maintained at a temperature in the range of from about 25 °C to 800 °C, preferably in the range of from about 400 °C to 500 °C.

Since the alkali metal is a covalent diatomic molecule in the gas phase, in one embodiment, a catalyst which forms a hydrogen compound having increased binding energy is formed by reacting a source with at least one other element. By dispersing the metal K or Li in an alkali metal halide such as KX or LiX, a catalyst such as K or Li can be produced to form KHX, LiHX (where X is a halogen). It is also possible to form KH and K or LiH and Li, respectively, by reacting vaporized K ₂ or Li ₂ with atom H to produce catalyst K or Li. The hydrogen compound with increased binding energy may be MHX, wherein M is an alkali metal, H is a low energy hydrogen hydride, and X is a negatively charged ion, and X is preferably a halogen. one. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture forming KHI or KHCl (wherein H is a low energy hydrogen hydride) comprises a K metal and a dissociator covered with KX (X=Cl, I), respectively (preferably a nickel metal such as a nickel mesh) And R-Ni). The reaction is carried out by maintaining the reaction mixture at a high temperature, preferably in the range of from 400 to 700 ° C, under the addition of hydrogen. The hydrogen pressure is preferably maintained at a gauge pressure of about 5 PSI. Thus, MX is placed on K such that the K atoms migrate through the halide lattice and the halide is used to disperse K and act as a K ₂ dissociator at the interface with from the dissociator (such as nickel mesh or R-Ni) H reacts to form KHX.

Suitable reaction mixtures for the synthesis of low energy hydrogen hydrides comprise at least two of a catalyst, a source of hydrogen, an oxidant, a reducing agent and a carrier, wherein the oxidant is a source of at least one of sulfur, phosphorus and oxygen, such as SF ₆ , S , SO ₂ , SO ₃ , S ₂ O ₅ Cl ₂ , F ₅ SOF, M ₂ S ₂ O ₈ , S _x X _y (such as S ₂ Cl ₂ , SCl ₂ , S ₂ Br ₂ , S ₂ F ₂ ), CS ₂ , Sb ₂ S ₅ , SOxX _y (such as SOCl ₂ , SOF ₂ , SO ₂ F ₂ , SOBr ₂ ), P, P ₂ O ₅ , P ₂ S ₅ , P _x X _y (such as PF ₃ , PCl ₃ , PBr ₃ , PI ₃ , PF ₅ , PCl ₅ , PBr ₄ F or PCl ₄ F), PO _x X _y (such as POBr ₃ , POI ₃ , POCl ₃ or POF ₃ ), PS _x X _y ( Such as PSBr ₃ , PSF ₃ , PSCl ₃ ), phosphorus-nitrogen compounds (such as P ₃ N ₅ , (Cl ₂ PN) ₃ or (Cl ₂ PN) ₄ , (Br ₂ PN) _x ( M is an alkali metal, x and y is an integer, X is a halogen)), O ₂ , N ₂ O, and TeO ₂ . The oxidizing agent may further comprise a source of halogen, preferably fluorine, such as CF ₄ , NF ₃ or CrF ₂ . The mixture may also contain a getter as a source of phosphorus or sulfur, such as MgS and MHS ( M is an alkali metal). Suitable getters are NMR peaks that produce high magnetic field shifts of ordinary H and atoms or compounds of low energy hydrogen hydride peaks at high magnetic fields of the ordinary H peak. Suitable getters include the elements S, P, O, Se and Te or comprise compounds containing S, P, O, Se and Te. A typical property of a suitable getter for low energy hydrino hydrides is that they form chains, cages or rings in elemental form, in the form of doping elements or with other elements that capture and stabilize low energy hydrino hydride ions. Preferably, H ^- (1/p) is observed in solid or solution NMR. In another embodiment, NaH or HCl is used as the catalyst. Suitable reaction mixtures comprise MX and M'HSO ₄ wherein M and M' are each an alkali metal, preferably Na and K, and X is a halogen, preferably Cl.

A reaction mixture comprising at least one of the following is a suitable system for generating power and producing a lower energy hydrogen compound: (1) NaH catalyst, MgH ₂ , SF ₆ and activated carbon (AC); (2) NaH catalyst, MgH ₂ , S and activated carbon (AC); (3) NaH catalyst, MgH ₂ , K ₂ S ₂ O ₈ , Ag and AC; (4) KH catalyst, MgH ₂ , K ₂ S ₂ O ₈ and AC; (5) MH catalyst (M=Li, Na, K), Al or MgH ₂ , O ₂ , K ₂ S ₂ O ₈ and AC; (6) KH catalyst, Al, CF ₄ and AC; (7) NaH catalyst, Al, NF ₃ and AC; (8) KH catalyst, MgH ₂ , N ₂ O and AC; (9) NaH catalyst, MgH ₂ , O ₂ and activated carbon (AC); (10) NaH catalyst, MgH ₂ , CF ₄ and AC; (11) MH catalyst, MgH ₂ (M=Li, Na or K), P ₂ O ₅ (P ₄ O ₁₀ ) and AC; (12) MH catalyst, MgH ₂ , MNO ₃ (M=Li, Na Or K) and AC; (13) NaH or KH catalyst, Mg, Ca or Sr, transition metal halide (preferably FeCl ₂ , FeBr ₂ , NiBr ₂ , MnI ₂ ) or rare earth metal halide (such as EuBr ₂ ) and AC; and (14) NaH catalyst, Al, CS ₂ and AC. In other embodiments of the exemplary reaction mixture given above, the catalyst cation comprises one of Li, Na, K, Rb or Cs and the other material of the reaction mixture is selected from the group consisting of reactions 1 to 14. The reactants can be in any desired ratio.

The low-energy hydrogen reaction product is at least one of a hydrogen molecule and a hydrogen anion that are displaced by a proton NMR peak to a high magnetic field of a proton NMR peak of ordinary molecular hydrogen or hydrogen hydride, respectively. In one embodiment, the hydrogen product incorporates elements other than hydrogen, wherein the proton NMR peak shifts to a high magnetic field of a proton NMR peak of a common molecule, substance or compound having the same molecular formula as the product, or a common molecule, substance or compound Unstable at room temperature.

In one embodiment, the hydrogen compound with increased kinetic and binding energy is produced from a reaction mixture comprising two or more of the following: LiNO ₃ , NaNO ₃ , KNO ₃ , LiH, NaH, KH, Li, Na, K, H ₂ , a support such as carbon, such as activated carbon, a metal or metal hydride reducing agent (preferably MgH ₂ ). The reactants can be in any molar ratio. The reaction mixture preferably comprises 9.3 mole% MH, 8.6 mole% MgH _2, 74 mole% AC and 7.86 mole% MNO ₃ (M is Li, Na or K), where the mole% of each substance can be for The molar % shown by each substance is added or subtracted from the range of factor 10. After extracting the product mixture with NMR solvent, preferably deuterated DFM, liquid NMR is used to observe low molecular energy hydrogen and low energy hydrogen hydrogen with better 1/4 state product at about 1.22 ppm and -3.85 ppm, respectively. Anion. The product M ₂ CO ₃ can be used as a getter for low energy hydrino hydride to form a compound such as MHMHCO ₃ .

In another embodiment, the power and increase the binding energy hydrogen compound comprising two or more reaction mixtures produced by the following substances: LiH, NaH, KH, Li , Na, K, H 2, a metal or a metal hydride a reducing agent (preferably MgH ₂ or Al powder, preferably nano powder), a carrier (such as carbon, preferably activated carbon) and a fluorine source (such as fluorine gas or fluorocarbon, preferably CF ₄ or hexafluorobenzene (HFB). ). The reactants can be in any molar ratio. The reaction mixture preferably comprises 9.8 mole % MH, 9.1 mole % MgH ₂ or 9 mole % Al nano powder, 79 mole % AC and 2.4 mole % CF ₄ or HFB (M is Li, Na or K) The molar % of each substance may vary within a range of plus or minus a factor of 10 for each of the indicated molars. After extracting the product mixture with an NMR solvent, preferably deuterated DFM or CDCl ₃ , liquid NMR is used to observe low molecular energy hydrogen and low molecular weight products at about 1.22 ppm and -3.66 ppm, respectively. Energy hydrogen hydride anion.

In another embodiment, the power and increase the binding energy hydrogen compound comprising two or more reaction mixtures produced by the following substances: LiH, NaH, KH, Li , Na, K, H 2, a metal or a metal hydride A reducing agent (preferably MgH ₂ or Al powder), a carrier (such as carbon, preferably activated carbon) and a fluorine source (preferably SF ₆ ). The reactants can be in any molar ratio. The reaction mixture preferably comprises 10 mole % MH, 9.1 mole % MgH ₂ or 9 mole % Al powder, 78.8 mole % AC and 24 mole % SF ₆ (M is Li, Na or K), wherein each substance The mole % can be varied within a range of plus or minus a factor of 10 given for each substance. Suitable reaction mixtures comprise NaH, MgH ₂ or Mg, AC and SF ₆ in such molar ratios. NMR with a solvent, or DFM preferred CDCl ₃ deuterated product was extracted mixture, liquid NMR, respectively at about 1.22ppm and -3.86ppm the observed state product molecules having the preferred low energy 1/4 hydrogen and low Energy hydrogen hydride anion.

In another embodiment, the power and increase the binding energy hydrogen compound comprising two or more reaction mixtures produced by the following substances: LiH, NaH, KH, Li , Na, K, H 2, a metal or a metal hydride a reducing agent (preferably MgH ₂ or Al powder), a carrier (such as carbon, preferably activated carbon), and a source of at least one of sulfur, phosphorus and oxygen (preferably S or P powder, SF ₆ , CS ₂ , P) ₂ O ₅ and MNO ₃ (M is an alkali metal)). The reactants can be in any molar ratio. The reaction mixture preferably comprises 8.1 mol% MH, 7.5 mol% MgH ₂ or Al powder, 65 mol% AC and 19.5 mol% S (M is Li, Na or K), wherein the molar % of each substance is It varies within the range of the molar % given for each substance plus or minus the factor of 10. Suitable reaction mixtures comprise NaH, MgH ₂ or Mg, AC and S powders in such molar ratios. After extracting the product mixture with an NMR solvent, preferably deuterated DFM or CDCl ₃ , liquid NMR is used to observe low molecular energy hydrogen and low molecular weight products at about 1.22 ppm and -3.66 ppm, respectively. Energy hydrogen hydride anion.

In another embodiment, the hydrogen compound with increased kinetic and binding energy is produced from a reaction mixture comprising NaHS. Low energy hydrino hydride anions can be separated from NaHS. In one embodiment, the solid state reaction occurs in NaHS to form H ^- (1/4), and H ^- (1/4) can be further reacted with a source of protons (such as a solvent, preferably H ₂ O) to form H ₂ ( 1/4).

In one embodiment, the low energy hydro hydride can be purified. The purification method may comprise at least one of extraction and recrystallization using a suitable solvent. The method may further comprise chromatography and other techniques known to those skilled in the art for separating inorganic compounds.

In a liquid fuel embodiment, the solvent has a halogen functional group, preferably fluorine. A suitable reaction mixture comprises at least one of hexafluorobenzene and octafluoronaphthalene which is added to a catalyst such as NaH and mixed with a carrier such as activated carbon, fluoropolymer or R-Ni. The reaction mixture can comprise energetic materials that can be used in applications known to those skilled in the art. Suitable applications due to high energy balance are propellant and piston engine fuels. In one embodiment, the desired product is at least one of a collection and a tube.

In one embodiment, the molecular low energy hydrogen H ₂ (1/p), preferably H ₂ (1/4), is the product of further reduction to form the corresponding hydrogen anion, which can be used in, for example, hydride batteries and Application of surface coatings. Molecular low energy hydrogen bonds can be broken by collision methods. H ₂ (1/p) can be dissociated via high energy collisions with ions or electrons in the plasma or electron beam. The dissociated low energy hydrogen atoms can then react to form the desired hydride anion.

XI. Experiment

A. Water flow batch calorimetry

Use a cylinder of approximately 130.3 cm ³ volume (1.5" inner diameter (ID), 4.5" long and 0.2" wall thickness) or 1988 cm ³ volume (3.75" inner diameter (ID), 11" long and 0.375" wall thickness) Shaped stainless steel reactor and a water flow calorimeter containing an external water-cooled serpentine with an energy loss of 99+% and an external water-cooled serpentine tube with an error of <±1% in a vacuum chamber containing each battery, and the catalyst reaction listed on the right side of each item below The energy and power balance of the mixture. Energy recovery is determined by integrating the total output power P _T over time. The power is as shown below

among them Mass flow rate, C _p is the specific heat of water and is the absolute temperature variation ΔT between the inlet and the outlet. The reaction is initiated by applying precise power to the external heater. In particular, 100-200W power (130.3 cm ³ battery) or 800-1000W (1988 cm ³ battery) is supplied to the heater. During this heating period, the reagent reaches a low energy hydrogen reaction threshold temperature, where the start of the reaction is typically confirmed by a sharp rise in battery temperature. Once the battery temperature reaches approximately 400-500 ° C, the input power is set to zero. After 50 minutes, the program indicates that the power is zero. To increase the rate of heat transfer to the coolant, the chamber was again pressurized with 1000 Torr and the maximum water temperature change (outlet minus inlet) was about 1.2 °C. As confirmed by the complete balance observed in the flow thermistor, the assembly was fully equilibrated over a period of 24 hours.

In each test, the energy input and energy output are calculated by integrating the corresponding power. Using equation (158), the water flow rate is multiplied by the water density at 19 ° C (0.998 kg / l), water specific heat (4.181 kJ / kg ° C), corrected temperature difference and time interval, calculate the cooling flow each time increase Thermal energy. The values in the entire experiment are summed to obtain the total energy output. The total energy E _T from the battery must be equal to the energy input E _in and any net energy E _net . Therefore, the net energy is as follows

E _net = E _T - E _in . (159)

From this energy balance, any excess heat E _ex relative to the maximum theoretical E _mt is determined by the following

E _ex = E _net - E _mt . (160)

The calibration test results show that the resistive input is thermally coupled to the output coolant over 98%, and the zero excess heat comparison shows that the calorimeter is accurate to less than 1% error after application calibration. The results are given below, where Tmax is the maximum battery temperature, Ein is the input energy, and dE is the measured output energy exceeding the input energy. All energy is exothermic. A positive value is given to indicate the amount of energy.

Metal halides, oxides and sulfides

■ 20g AC3-5+5g Mg+8.3g KH+11.2g Mg ₃ As ₂ , 298.6kJ, dE: 21.8kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 315°C, theoretically endothermic, gain infinite.

■ 20g AC3-5+5g Mg+8.3g KH+9.1g Ca ₃ P ₂ , Ein: 282.1kJ, dE: 18.1kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 320°C, endothermic, unlimited gain.

■ verification Rowan (Rowan Validation) KH 7.47gm + Mg 4.5gm + TiC 18.0gm + EuBr 2 14.04gm, Ein: 321.1kJ, dE: 40.5kJ, Tmax is about 340 ℃, the energy gain of about 6.5X (1.37kJ ×4.5=6.16kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + CAII-300 20.0 gm + TiB ₂ 3.5 gm, Ein: 299 kJ, dE: 10 kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 320 °C. The energy gain is about X (X is about 0 kJ; 1" battery: excess energy is about 5.1 kJ).

■KH 8.3gm+Mg 5.0gm+CAII-300 20.0gm+RbCl 6.05gm, Ein: 311kJ, dE: 18kJ, no TSC and Tmax is about 340°C, energy gain is about X (X is about 0kJ; 1" battery : Excess energy is about 6.0kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + CAII-300 20.0 gm + Li ₂ S 2.3 gm, Ein: 323 kJ, dE: 12 kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 340 ° C. The energy gain is about X (X is about 0 kJ; 1" battery: excess energy is about 5.0 kJ).

■ KH 8.3gm + Mg 5.0gm + CAII -300 20.0gm + Mg 3 N 2 5.05gm, Ein: 323kJ, dE: 11kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 330 ℃. The energy gain is about X (X is about 0 kJ; 1" battery: excess energy is about 5.2 kJ).

■4g AC3-5+1g Mg+1.66g KH+3.55g PtBr ₂ , Ein: 95.0kJ, dE: 15.7kJ, TSC: 108-327°C, Tmax: 346°C, theoretical energy is 6.66kJ, gain is 2.36 times .

▇4g AC3-5 + 1g Mg + 1g NaH + 3.55g PtBr 2, Ein: 94.0kJ, dE: 14.3kJ, TSC: 100-256 ℃, Tmax: 326 ℃, theoretical energy 6.03kJ, a gain of 2.37 times.

▇4g WC+1g MgH ₂ +1g NaH+0.01mol Cl ₂ , initiated by UV lamp, dissociating Cl ₂ into Cl, Ein: 162.9kJ, dE: 16.0kJ, TSC: 23-42°C, Tmax: 85°C, The theoretical energy is 7.10 kJ and the gain is 2.25 times.

■4g AC3-5+1g Mg+1.66g KH+2.66g PdBr ₂ , Ein: 113.0kJ, dE: 11.7kJ, TSC: 133-276°C, Tmax: 370°C, theoretical energy is 6.43kJ, gain is 1.82 times .

▇4g AC3-5+1g Mg+1g NaH+2.66g PdBr ₂ , Ein: 116.0kJ, dE: 9.4kJ, TSC: 110-217°C, Tmax: 361°C, theoretical energy 5.81kJ, gain 1.63 times.

■4g AC3-5+1g Mg+1.66g KH+3.60g PdI ₂ , Ein: 142.0kJ, dE: 7.8kJ, TSC: 177-342°C, Tmax: 403°C, theoretical energy is 5.53kJ, gain is 1.41 times .

■1" large capacity battery 0.41g AlN+1.66g KH+1g Mg powder +4g AC3-5, energy gain is 4.9kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature is observed. The maximum battery temperature is 407 °C, theoretically endothermic.

■KH 8.3gm+Mg 5.0gm+CAII-300 20.0gm+CrB ₂ 3.7gm, Ein: 317kJ, dE: 19kJ, no TSC and Tmax is about 340°C, the theoretical energy is 0.05kJ, and the gain is infinite.

■ KH 8.3 gm + new Mg 5.0 gm + CAII-300 20.0 gm + AgCl 9.36 gm, Ein: 99 kJ, dE: 43 kJ, small TSC at about 250 ° C and Tmax of about 340 ° C. The energy gain is about 2.3X (X = 18.88kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + new TiC (G06U055) 20.0 gm + AgCl 7.2 gm, Ein: 315 kJ, dE: 25 kJ, small TSC at about 250 ° C and Tmax of about 340 ° C. The energy gain is about 1.72X (X = 14.52kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + CAII-300 20.0 gm + Y ₂ O ₃ 11.3 gm (gain of about 4X at TiC), Ein: 353 kJ, dE: 23 kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 350 °C. The energy gain is about 4X (X is about 1.18kJ*5=5.9kJ).

■ KH 4.15 gm + Mg 2.5 gm + CAII-300 10.0 gm + EuBr ₃ 9.8 gm, Ein: 323 kJ, dE: 27 kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 350 °C. The energy gain is about 2.26X (X = 11.93kJ).

■4g AC3-5+1g Mg+1g NaH+2.23g Mg ₃ As ₂ , 133.0kJ, dE: 5.8kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 371 ° C, theoretically endothermic, gain unlimited.

■4g AC3-5+1g Mg+1.66g KH+2.23g Mg ₃ As ₂ , Ein: 139.0kJ, dE: 6.5kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 393°C, theoretically endothermic, gain infinite.

■4g AC3-5+1g Mg+1.66g KH+1.82g Ca ₃ P ₂ , Ein: 133.0kJ, dE: 5.8kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 407°C, theoretically endothermic, gain infinite.

■ 4g AC3-5+1g Mg+1g NaH+3.97g WCl ₆ ; Ein: 99.0kJ; dE: 21.84kJ; TSC: 100-342°C; Tmax: 375° C., theoretical energy: 16.7kJ, gain 1.3 times.

■ 2.60g CsI, 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g AC3-4 were used in the 1" large-capacity battery. The energy gain was 4.9kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature was 406 °C, theoretical energy. It is 0 and the gain is infinite.

■ 0.42 g of LiCl, 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of AC3-4 were used. The energy gain was 5.4 kJ, but no battery temperature spike was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 412 ° C, the theoretical energy is 0, and the gain is infinite.

■4g AC3-4+1g Mg+1g NaH+1.21g RbCl, Ein: 136.0kJ, dE: 5.2kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 372°C, theoretical energy is 0kJ, and the gain is infinite.

■KH 8.3 gm+Mg 5.0 gm+CAII-30020.0 gm+CaBr ₂ 10.0 gm, Ein: 323 kJ, dE: 27 kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 340 °C. The energy gain is about 3.0X (X is about 1.71 kJ*5 = 8.55 kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + CAII-300 20.0 gm + YF ₃ 7.3 gm, Ein: 320 kJ, dE: 17 kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 340 °C. The energy gain is about 4.5X (X is about 0.74kJ*5=3.7kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + TiC 20.0 gm + dried SnBr ₂ 14.0 gm, Ein: 299 kJ, dE: 36 kJ, small TSC at about 130 ° C and Tmax of about 350 ° C. The energy gain is about 1.23X (X is about 5.85kJ x 5 = 29.25kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + TiC 20.0 gm + EuBr ₂ 15.6 gm, Ein: 291 kJ, dE: 45 kJ, small TSC at about 50 ° C and Tmax of about 320 ° C. The energy gain is about 32X (X is about 0.28kJ x 5 = 1.4kJ) and the gain is about 6.5X (1.37kJ x 5 = 6.85kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + CAII-300 20.0 gm + dried ZnBr ₂ 11.25 gm, Ein: 288 kJ, dE: 45 kJ, small TSC at about 200 ° C and Tmax of about 350 °C. The energy gain is about 2.1X (X is about 4.19kJ x 5 = 20.9kJ).

■NaH 5.0gm+Mg 5.0gm+CAII-300 20.0gm+SF ₆ , Ein: 77.7kJ, dE: 105kJ, Tmax is about 400°C. Energy gain of about 1.43X (SF ₆ to 0.03 mole in terms of X of about 73kJ).

■ NaH 5.0gm + Mg 5.0gm + CAII -300 20.0gm + SF 6, Ein: 217kJ, dE: 84kJ, Tmax of deg.] C to about 400. Energy gain of about 1.15x (SF ₆ to 0.03 mole in terms of X of about 73kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + CAII-300 20.0 gm + AgCl 7.2 gm, Ein: 357 kJ, dE: 25 kJ, small TSC at about 250 ° C and Tmax of about 340 ° C. The energy gain is about 1.72X (X is about 14.52kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + CAII-300 20.0 gm + AgCl 7.2 gm, Ein: 487 kJ, dE: 34 kJ, small TSC at about 250 ° C and Tmax of about 340 ° C. The energy gain is about 2.34X (X is about 14.52kJ).

■20g AC3-4+8.3g Ca+5g NaH+15.5g MnI ₂ , Ein: 181.5kJ, dE: 61.3kJ, TSC: 159-233°C, Tmax: 283°C, theoretical energy 29.5kJ, gain 2.08 times .

■4g AC3-4+1.66g Ca+1.66g KH+3.09g MnI ₂ , Ein: 113.0kJ, dE: 15.8kJ, TSC: 228-384°C, Tmax: 395°C, theoretical energy 6.68kJ, gain 2.37 Times.

■ 4g AC3-4+1g Mg+1.66g KH+0.46g Li ₂ S, Ein: 144.0kJ, dE: 5.0kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 419 ° C, theoretically endothermic.

■ 1.01g Mg ₃ N ₂ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g AC3-4 in a 1" large-capacity battery, the energy gain is 5.2kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature is observed. The maximum battery temperature is 401 °C, theory The energy is zero.

■ 1.21 g RbCl, 1.66 g KH, 1 g Mg powder, and 4 g AC3-4, the energy gain was 6.0 kJ, but no battery temperature jump was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 442 ° C and the theoretical energy is zero.

■ 2.24 g of Zn ₃ N ₂ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of AC3-4 were used. The energy gain was 5.5 kJ, but no battery temperature spike was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 410 ° C, the theoretical energy is 4.41 kJ, and the gain is 1.25 times.

■ 4g AC3-4+1g Mg+1g NaH+1.77g PdCl ₂ , Ein: 89.0kJ, dE: 10.5kJ, TSC: 83-204°C, Tmax: 306° C., theoretical energy 6.14kJ, gain 1.7 times.

■ In a 1" large-capacity battery, 0.74 g of CrB ₂ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder, and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-4), the energy gain was 4.3 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 404 ° C and the theoretical energy is zero.

■ 0.70 g of TiB ₂ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-4) were used. The energy gain was 5.1 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 431 ° C and the theoretical energy is zero.

■NaH 5.0gm+Mg 5.0gm+CAII-300 20.0gm+BaBr ₂ 14.85gm (dried), Ein: 328kJ, dE: 16kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 320°C. The energy gain is 160X (X is about 0.02 kJ*5 = 0.1 kJ).

■NaH 1.0 gm+Mg 1.0 gm+CAII-300 4.0 gm+BaBr ₂ 2.97 gm (dried), Ein: 140 kJ, dE: 3 kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 360 °C. The energy gain is about 150X (X is about 0.02kJ).

■NaH 5.0 gm+Mg 5.0 gm+CAII-300 20.0 gm+MgI ₂ 13.9 gm, Ein: 315 kJ, dE: 16 kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 340 °C. The energy gain is about 1.8X (X is about 1.75 x 5 = 8.75 kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + CAII-300 20.0 gm + MgBr ₂ 9.2 gm, Ein: 334 kJ, dE: 24 kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 340 °C. The energy gain is about 2.1X (X is about 2.23 x 5 = 11.5 kJ).

■ 20 g AC3-3 + 8.3 g KH + 7.2 g AgCl, Ein: 286.6 kJ, dE: 29.5 kJ, TSC: 327-391 ° C, Tmax: 394 ° C, theoretical energy 13.57 kJ, gain 2.17 times.

■ 4g AC3-3+1g MgH ₂ +1.66g KH+1.44g AgCl, Ein: 151.0kJ, dE: 4.8kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 397 ° C, theoretical energy 2.53kJ, gain 1.89 times.

■ 4g AC3-3+1g Mg+1g NaH+1.48g Ca ₃ N ₂ , Ein: 140.0kJ, dE: 4.9kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 392°C, theoretical energy 2.01kJ, gain 2.21 times.

■ 4g AC3-3+1g Mg+1g NaH+1.86g InCl ₂ , Ein: 125.0kJ, dE: 7.9kJ, TSC: 163-259°C, Tmax: 374°C, theoretical energy 4.22kJ, gain 1.87 times.

■4g AC3-3+1g Mg+1.66g KH+1.86g InCl ₂ , Ein: 105.0kJ, dE: 7.5kJ, TSC: 186-302°C, Tmax: 370°C, theoretical energy 4.7kJ, gain 1.59 times .

■ 4g AC3-3+1g Mg+1.66g KH+2.5g DyI ₂ , Ein: 135.0kJ, dE: 6.1kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 403°C, theoretical energy 1.89kJ, gain 3.22 times.

■ 3.92 g of EuBr ₃ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-3) in a 1" large-capacity battery, the energy gain was 10.5 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 429 ° C, the theoretical energy is 3.4 kJ, and the gain is 3 times.

■ 4.56 g AsI ₃ , 1.66 g KH, 1 g Mg powder and 4 g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-3), the energy gain was 13.5 kJ, and the battery temperature suddenly increased by 166 ° C (237-403 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 425 ° C, the theoretical energy is 8.65 kJ, and the gain is 1.56 times.

■ 4g AC3-3+1g Mg+1g NaH+2.09g EuF ₃ , Ein: 185.1kJ, dE: 8.0kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 463°C, theoretical energy 1.69kJ, gain 4.73 times.

■ 4g AC3-3+1g Mg+1.66g KH+1.27g AgF; Ein: 127.0kJ; dE: 6.04kJ; TSC: 84-190°C; Tmax: 369°C, theoretical energy 3.58kJ, gain 1.69 times.

■ 4g AC3-3+1g Mg+1g NaH+3.92g EuBr ₃ ; Ein: 162.5kJ; dE: 7.54kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 471° C., theoretical energy 3.41kJ, gain 2.21 times.

■ In a 1" large-capacity battery, 2.09 g of EuF ₃ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder, and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-3), the energy gain was 5.5 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 417 ° C, the theoretical energy is 1.71 kJ, and the gain is 3.25 times.

■ 3.29 g of YBr ₃ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder, and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-3), the energy gain was 7.0 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 441 ° C, the theoretical energy is 4.16 kJ, and the gain is 1.68 times.

▇NaH 5.0gm+Mg 5.0gm+CAII-300 20.0gm+BaI ₂ 19.5gm, Ein: 334kJ, dE: 13kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 350°C. The energy gain is about 2.95X (X is about 0.88kJ x 5 = 4.4kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + CAII-300 20.0 gm + BaCl ₂ 10.4 gm, Ein: 331 kJ, dE: 18 kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 320 °C. The energy gain is about 6.9X (X is about 0.52 x 5 = 2.6 kJ).

▇KH 8.3gm+Mg 5.0gm+TiC 20.0gm+LaF ₃ 9.8gm, Ein: 338kJ, dE: 7kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 320°C. The energy gain is about 1.9X (X is about 3.65kJ).

■NaH 5.0gm+Mg 5.0gm+CAII-300 20.0gm+BaBr ₂ 14.85gm (dried), Ein: 280kJ, dE: 10kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 320°C. The energy gain is about 100X (X is about 0.01 = 0.02 x 5kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + CAII-300 20.0 gm + BaBr ₂ 14.85 gm (dried), Ein: 267 kJ, dE: 8 kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 360 °C. The energy gain is about 2.5X (X is about 3.2kJ).

■NaH 5.0gm+Mg 5.0gm+TiC 20.0gm+ZnS 4.85gm, Ein: 319kJ, dE: 12kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 340°C. The energy gain is about 1.5X (X is about 8.0kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + TiC 20.0 gm + AgCl 7.2 gm (dried on 070109), Ein: 219 kJ, dE: 26 kJ, small TSC at about 250 ° C and Tmax about 340 ° C. The energy gain is about 1.8X (X is about 14.52kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + TiC 20.0 gm + Y ₂ O ₃ 11.3 gm, Ein: 339 kJ, dE: 24 kJ, small TSC at about 300 ° C and Tmax of about 350 ° C. The energy gain is about 4.0X (X is about 5.9kJ at NaH).

■ 4g AC3-3+1g Mg+1g NaH+1.95g YCl ₃ , Ein: 137.0kJ, dE: 7.1kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 384°C, theoretical energy 3.3kJ, gain 2.15 times.

■ In a 1" large-capacity battery, 4.70 g of YI ₃ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder, and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-1), the energy gain was 6.9 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 426 ° C, the theoretical energy is 3.37 kJ, and the gain is 2.04 times.

■ 1.51 g of SnO ₂ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder, and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-1), the energy gain was 9.4 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 460 ° C, the theoretical energy is 7.06 kJ, and the gain is 1.33 times.

■ 4.56 g AsI ₃ , 1.66 g KH, 1 g Mg powder and 4 g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-1), the energy gain was 11.5 kJ, and the battery temperature suddenly increased by 144 ° C (221-365 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 463 ° C, the theoretical energy is 8.65 kJ, and the gain is 1.33 times.

■ 3.09 g MnI ₂ , 1.66 g KH, 1 g Mg powder, and 4 g STiC-1 (TiC from Sigma Aldrich), the energy gain was 9.6 kJ, and the battery temperature suddenly increased by 137 ° C (38-175 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 396 ° C, the theoretical energy is 3.73 kJ, and the gain is 2.57 times.

■ 3.99 g of SeBr ₄ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-1), the energy gain was 20.9 kJ, and the battery temperature suddenly increased by 224 ° C (47-271 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 383 ° C, the theoretical energy is 16.93 kJ, and the gain is 1.23 times.

■ 20g AC3-3+5g Mg+8.3g KH+11.65g AgI, Ein: 238.6kJ, dE: 31.7kJ, TSC: 230-316°C, Tmax: 317°C, theoretical energy 12.3kJ, gain 2.57 times.

■ 4g AC3-3+1g Mg+1.66g KH+0.91g CoS, Ein: 145.1kJ, dE: 8.7kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 420°C, theoretical energy 2.63kJ, gain 3.3 times.

■ 4g AC3-3+1g Mg+1.66g KH+1.84g MgBr ₂ ; Ein: 134.1 kJ; dE: 5.75 kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 400 ° C, theoretical energy 2.23 kJ, gain 2.58 times.

■ 5.02 g SbI ₃ , 1.66 g KH, 1 g Mg powder and 4 g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-1), the energy gain was 12.2 kJ, and the battery temperature suddenly increased by 154 ° C (141-295 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 379 ° C, the theoretical energy is 9.71 kJ, and the gain is 1.26 times.

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + TiC 20.0 gm + AgCl 7.2 gm, Ein: 304 kJ, dE: 30 kJ, small TSC at about 275 ° C and Tmax of about 340 ° C. The energy gain is about 2.1X (X is about 14.52kJ).

■KH 1.66gm+Mg 1.0gm+TiC 5.0gm+BaBr ₂ 2.97gm, loaded BaBr ₂ -KH-Mg-TiC, Ein: 130kJ, dE: 2kJ, no TSC and Tmax is about 360°C, theoretical energy is 0.64kJ The gain is 3 times.

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + TiC 20.0 gm + CuS 4.8 gm, Ein: 318 kJ, dE: 30 kJ, small TSC at about 250 ° C and Tmax of about 360 ° C. The energy gain is about 2.1X (X is about 14.4kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + TiC 20.0 gm + MnS 4.35 gm, Ein: 326 kJ, dE: 14 kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 350 °C. The energy gain is about 2.2X (X is about 6.3kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + TiC 20.0 gm + GdF ₃ 10.7 gm, Ein: 339 kJ, dE: 7 kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 360 °C. The energy gain is about 2.54X (X is about 2.75kJ).

■ 20 g AC3-2+5g Mg+8.3g KH+7.2g AgCl, Ein: 327.1kJ, dE: 40.4kJ, TSC: 288-318°C, Tmax: 326°C, theoretical energy 14.52kJ, gain 2.78 times.

■ 20 g AC3-2+5g Mg+8.3g KH+7.2g CuBr, Ein: 205.1kJ, dE: 22.5kJ, TSC: 216-268°C, Tmax: 280°C, theoretical energy 13.46kJ, gain 1.67 times.

■ 4g AC3-2+1g Mg+1g NaH+1.46g YF ₃ , Ein: 157.0kJ, dE: 4.3kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 405 ° C, theoretical energy 0.77kJ, gain 5.65 times.

■ 4g AC3-2+1g Mg+1.66g KH+1.46g YF ₃ , Ein: 137.0kJ, dE: 5.6kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 398°C, theoretical energy 0.74kJ, gain 7.54 times.

■ 11.3g Y ₂ O ₃ , 5g NaH, 5g Mg powder and 20g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-2) in 2" large capacity battery, the energy gain is 24.5kJ, but no battery temperature is observed. The maximum battery temperature is 386 ° C, the theoretical energy is 5.9 kJ, and the gain is 4.2 times.

■4g AC3-2+1g Mg+1g NaH+3.91g BaI ₂ , Ein: 135.0kJ, dE: 5.3kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 378°C, theoretical energy 0.1kJ, gain 51 times.

■4g AC3-2+1g Mg+1.66g KH+3.91g BaI ₂ , Ein: 123.1kJ, dE: 3.3kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 390° C., theoretical energy 0.88 kJ, gain 3.8 times.

■4g AC3-2+1g Mg+1.66g KH+2.08g BaCl ₂ , Ein: 141.0kJ, dE: 5.5kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 403°C, theoretical energy 0.52kJ, gain 10.5 times.

■ 4g AC3-2+1g Mg+1.66g KH+3.42g SrI ₂ ; Ein: 128.2kJ; dE: 4.35kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 383°C, theoretical energy 1.62kJ, gain 3.3 times.

■ 4.04 g of Sb ₂ S ₅ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-2) were used. The energy gain was 18.0 kJ and the battery temperature increased sharply by 251 ° C (224-475 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 481 ° C, the theoretical energy is 12.7 kJ, and the gain is 1.4 times.

■ 4g AC3-2+1g Mg+1g NaH+0.97g ZnS, Ein: 132.1kJ, dE: 7.5kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 370°C, theoretical energy 1.4kJ, gain 5.33 times.

■4g AC3-2+1g Mg+1g NaH+3.12g EuBr ₂ , Ein: 135.0kJ, dE: 5.0kJ, TSC: 114-182°C, Tmax: 371°C, theoretically endothermic +0.35kJ, the gain is infinite.

■4g AC3-2+1g Mg+1.66g KH+3.12g EuBr ₂ , Ein: 122.0kJ, dE: 9.4kJ, TSC: 73-135°C, Tmax: 385°C, theoretical energy 0.28kJ, gain 34 times .

■4g CA3-2+1g Mg+1.66g KH+3.67g PbBr ₂ ; Ein: 126.0kJ; dE: 6.98kJ; TSC: 270-408°C; Tmax: 421°C, theoretical energy 5.17kJ, gain 1.35 times .

■ 4g CA3-2+1g Mg+1g NaH+1.27g AgF: Ein: 125.0kJ; dE: 7.21kJ; TSC: 74-175°C; Tmax: 372°C, theoretical energy: 3.58kJ, gain of 2 times.

■ 1.80g GdBr ₃ (0.01mol GdBr ₃ is 3.97g, but not enough GdBr ₃ ), 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-1), energy gain is 2.8kJ However, no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 431 ° C, the theoretical energy is 1.84 kJ, and the gain is 1.52 times.

■ 0.97 g of ZnS, 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-1), the energy gain was 4.0 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 444 ° C, the theoretical energy is 1.61 kJ, and the gain is 2.49 times.

■ 3.92g BI ₃ (in PP vials), 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-1), the energy gain is 13.2kJ, and the battery temperature rises to 87°C ( 152-239 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 465 ° C, the theoretical energy is 9.7 kJ, and the gain is 1.36 times.

■ 4g AC3-2+1g Mg+1g NaH+3.2g HfCl ₄ , Ein: 131.0kJ, dE: 10.5kJ, TSC: 277-439°C, Tmax: 440°C, theoretical energy 8.1kJ, gain 1.29 times.

■4g AC3-2+1g Mg+1.66g KH+3.2g HfCl ₄ , Ein: 125.0kJ, dE: 11.5kJ, TSC: 254-357°C, Tmax: 405°C, theoretical energy 9.06kJ, gain 1.27 times .

■ 4g CA3-2+1g Mg+1.66g KH+2.97g BaBr ₂ ; Ein: 132.1kJ; dE: 4.65kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 361° C., theoretical energy 0.64kJ, gain 7.24 times.

■ 4g CA3-2+1g Mg+1.66g KH+2.35g AgI; Ein: 142.9kJ; dE: 7.32kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 420°C, theoretical energy 2.46kJ, gain 2.98 times.

■ 4.12 g of PI ₃ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-1) were used. The energy gain was 13.8 kJ and the battery temperature suddenly increased by 189 ° C (184-373 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 438 ° C, the theoretical energy is 11.1 kJ, and the gain is 1.24 times.

■ 1.57 g SnF ₂ , 1.66 g KH, 1 g Mg powder, and 4 g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-1), the energy gain was 7.9 kJ, and the battery temperature rise was changed to 72 ° C (149-221 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 407 ° C, the theoretical energy is 5.28 kJ, and the gain is 1.5 times.

■ 1.96 g of LaF ₃ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-1), the energy gain was 4.2 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 442 ° C, the theoretical energy is 0.68 kJ, and the gain is 6.16 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+2.78g MgI ₂ , Ein: 129.0kJ, dE: 6.6kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 371°C, theoretical energy 1.75kJ, gain 3.8 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1.66g KH+2.48g SrBr ₂ , Ein: 137.0kJ, dE: 6.1kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 402°C, theoretical energy 1.35kJ, gain 4.54 times.

▇4g CA3-2+1g Mg+1.66g KH+2.0g CaBr ₂ ; Ein: 147.0kJ; dE: 6.33kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 445° C., theoretical energy 1.71kJ, gain 3.7 times.

■ 4g CA3-2+1g Mg+1g NaH+2.97g BaBr ₂ ; Ein: 140.1kJ; dE: 8.01kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 405 ° C, theoretical energy 0.02 kJ, gain 483 times.

■ 0.90 g of CrF ₂ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder, and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-1) were used. The energy gain was 4.7 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 415 ° C, the theoretical energy is 3.46 kJ, and the gain is 1.36 times.

▇KH 8.3gm+Mg 5.0gm+TiC 20.0gm+InCl 7.5gm, Ein 275kJ, dE: 26kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 340 °C. The energy gain is about 2.2X (X is about 11.45kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + TiC 20.0 gm + InI 12.1 gm, Ein 320 kJ, dE: 12 kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 340 °C. The energy gain is about 1.25X (X is about 9.6kJ).

▇KH 8.3gm+Mg 5.0gm+TiC 20.0gm+InBr 9.75gm, Ein 323kJ, dE: 17kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 340 °C. The energy gain is about 1.7X (X is about 10kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + TiC 20.0 gm + MnI ₂ 15.45 gm, a validation experiment by Dr. Peter Jansson, Ein 292 kJ, dE: 45 kJ, small TSC at about 30 ° C and a Tmax of about 340 °C. The energy gain is about 2.43X (X is about 18.5kJ).

■ KH 8.3gm + Mg 5.0gm + TiC 20.0gm + FeBr 2 10.8gm (FeBr ₂ of from STREM Chemicals), Jansson Peter Dr. validation experiments, Ein: 308kJ, dE: 46kJ , TSC at about 220 deg.] C and Tmax = About 330 ° C. The energy gain is about 1.84X (X is about 25kJ).

■ KH 8.3gm + Mg 5.0gm + TiC 20.0gm + CoI 2 15.65gm, Ein: 243kJ, dE: 55kJ, at about 170 ℃ small TSC and Tmax of about 330 ℃, theoretical energy 26.35kJ, gain is 2.08 times .

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + TiC 20.0 gm + NiBr ₂ 11.0 gm, Ein: 270 kJ, dE: 45 kJ, TSC at about 220 ° C and Tmax of about 340 ° C, theoretical energy of 23 kJ, gain of 1.95 times.

■ KH 8.3gm + Mg 5.0gm + TiC 20.0gm + FeBr 2 10.8gm (FeBr from STREM Chemicals of _{2), Ein: 291kJ, dE} : 38kJ, about 200 ℃ TSC and Tmax of about 330 ℃, the theoretical energy of 25kJ, The gain is 1.52 times.

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + CAII-300 20.0 gm + ZnBr ₂ 11.25 gm, Ein 302 kJ, dE: 42 kJ, small TSC at about 200 ° C and Tmax about 375 ° C. The energy gain is about 2X (X is about 20.9 kJ).

■ KH 8.30 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + TiC 20.0 gm + GdBr ₃ 19.85 gm, Ein: 308 kJ, dE: 26 kJ, TSC at about 250 ° C and Tmax of about 340 ° C. The energy gain is about 1.3X (X is about 20.3kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + CAII-300 20.0 gm + MnS 4.35 gm, Ein: 349 kJ, dE: 24 kJ, TSC at about 260 ° C and Tmax of about 350 ° C. The energy gain is about 3.6X (X is about 6.6kJ).

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+3.79g LaBr ₃ , Ein: 143.0kJ, dE: 4.8kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 392°C, theoretical energy 2.46kJ, gain 1.96 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1.66g KH+3.80g CeBr ₃ , Ein: 145.0kJ, dE: 7.6kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 413°C, theoretical energy 3.84kJ, gain 1.97 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1.66g KH+1.44g AgCl; Ein: 136.2kJ; dE: 7.14kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 420°C, theoretical energy 2.90kJ, gain 2.46 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1.66g KH+1.60g Cu ₂ S, Ein: 137.0kJ, dE: 5.5kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 405 ° C, theoretical energy 2.67kJ, gain 2.06 times.

■2.54g TeI ₄ (0.01mol TeI ₄ is 6.35g, but not enough TeI ₄ ), 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-1), energy gain is 8.3kJ And the battery temperature suddenly increased by 113 ° C (202-315 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 395 ° C, the theoretical energy is 5.61 kJ, and the gain is 1.48 times.

■ 2.51 g BBr ₃ , 1.66 g KH, 1 g Mg powder and 4 g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (AC3-1), and the energy gain was 12.4 kJ. The battery temperature rise was changed to 52 ° C (77-129 ° C), and the battery temperature suddenly increased by 88 ° C (245-333 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 438 ° C, the theoretical energy is 9.28 kJ, and the gain is 1.34 times.

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1.0g NaH+3.59g TaCl ₅ , Ein: 102.0kJ, dE: 16.9kJ, TSC: 80-293°C, Tmax: 366°C, theoretical energy 11.89kJ, gain 1.42 times .

_{■ 2.72g CdBr 2, 1.66g KH,} 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ℃), an energy gain of 6.6kJ, and a sudden increase in the temperature of the battery 56 ℃ (253-309 ℃). The maximum battery temperature is 414 ° C, the theoretical energy is 4.31 kJ, and the gain is 1.53 times.

_{■ 2.73g MoCl 5, 1.66gKH, 1g} Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ℃), an energy gain of 20.1kJ, and a sudden increase in the temperature of the battery 240 ℃ (67-307 ℃). The maximum battery temperature is 511 ° C, the theoretical energy is 15.04 kJ, and the gain is 1.34 times.

■ 2.75 g of InBr ₂ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 7.3 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 481 ° C, the theoretical energy is 4.46 kJ, and the gain is 1.64 times.

_{■ 1.88g NbF 5, 1.66g KH,} 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ℃), an energy gain of 15.5kJ, but the sudden increase in the temperature of the battery was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 448 ° C, the theoretical energy is 11.36 kJ, and the gain is 1.36 times.

_{■ 2.33g ZrCl 4, 1.66g KH,} 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ℃), an energy gain of 12.9kJ, and a sudden increase in the temperature of the battery 156 ℃ (311-467 ℃) . The maximum battery temperature is 472 ° C, the theoretical energy is 8.82 kJ, and the gain is 1.46 times.

■3.66g CdI ₂ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain is 6.7kJ, and the battery temperature rises to 74 ° C (125-199 ° C ). The maximum battery temperature is 417 ° C, the theoretical energy is 4.12 kJ, and the gain is 1.62 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1.66g KH+2.64g GdCl ₃ ; Ein: 127.0kJ; dE: 4.82kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 395° C., theoretical energy 3.54kJ, gain 1.36 times.

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + CAII-300 20.0 gm + InCl 7.5 gm, Ein: 305 kJ, dE: 32 kJ, small TSC at about 150 ° C and Tmax of about 350 ° C. The energy gain is about 2.8X (X is about 11.5kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + WC 20.0 gm + CoI ₂ 15.65 gm, Ein: 306 kJ, dE: 41 kJ, small TSC at about 200 ° C and Tmax of about 350 ° C. The energy gain is about 1.55X (X is about 26.4kJ).

■NaH 5.0 gm+Mg 5.0 gm+WC 20.0 gm+GdBr ₃ 19.85 gm, Ein 309 kJ, dE: 28 kJ, small TSC at about 250 ° C and Tmax of about 340 ° C. The energy gain is about 1.8X (X is about 15.6kJ).

■ KH 4.98 gm + Mg 3.0 gm + CAII-300 12.0 gm + InBr 5.85 gm, 3X system, Ein: 297 kJ, dE: 13 kJ, small TSC at about 200 ° C and Tmax of about 330 ° C. The energy gain is about 1.3X (X is about 10kJ).

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+2.26g Y ₂ O ₃ , Ein: 133.1kJ, dE: 5.2kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 384°C, theoretical energy 1.18kJ, gain 4.44 times.

■ 4.11g ZrBr ₄ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain is 11.2kJ, and battery temperature suddenly increases by 154 ° C (280-434 ° C) . The maximum battery temperature is 444 ° C, the theoretical energy is 9.31 kJ, and the gain is 1.2 times.

■ 5.99g ZrI ₄ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain is 11.3kJ, and battery temperature increases by 200 ° C (214-414 ° C) . The maximum battery temperature is 454 ° C, the theoretical energy is 9.4 kJ, and the gain is 1.2 times.

■ 2.70g NbCl ₅ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain is 16.4kJ, and battery temperature suddenly increases by 213 ° C (137-350 ° C) . The maximum battery temperature is 395 ° C, the theoretical energy is 13.40 kJ, and the gain is 1.22 times.

■ 2.02 g of MoCl ₃ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder, and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 12.1 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 536 ° C, the theoretical energy is 8.48 kJ, and the gain is 1.43 times.

_{■ 3.13g NiI 2, 1.66g KH,} 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 deg.] C), a gain of 8.0 kJ of energy, and a sudden increase in the temperature of the battery 33 ℃ (335-368 ℃) . The maximum battery temperature is 438 ° C, the theoretical energy is 5.89 kJ, and the gain is 1.36 times.

■ 3.87g As ₂ Se ₃ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300°C), energy gain is 12.3kJ, and battery temperature suddenly increases by 241°C (195-436) °C). The maximum battery temperature is 446 ° C, the theoretical energy is 8.4 kJ, and the gain is 1.46 times.

■ 2.74 g of Y ₂ S ₃ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 5.2 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 444 ° C, the theoretical energy is 0.41 kJ, and the gain is 12.64 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1.66g KH+3.79g LaBr ₃ , Ein: 147.1kJ, dE: 7.1kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 443°C, theoretical energy 3.39kJ, gain of 2 times.

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1.66g KH+2.15g MnBr ₂ ; Ein: 124.0kJ; dE: 5.55kJ; TSC: 360-405°C; Tmax: 411°C, theoretical energy 3.63kJ, gain 1.53 times .

■ 2.60g Bi(OH) ₃ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain is 14.8kJ, and the battery temperature suddenly increases by 173 ° C (202- 375 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 452 ° C, the theoretical energy is 12.23 kJ, and the gain is 1.2 times.

■KH 8.3gm+Mg 5.0gm+TiC 20.0gm+SnI ₂ 18.5gm Strem, Ein: 244kJ, dE: 53kJ, TSC at about 150°C and Tmax is about 330°C, theoretical energy is 28.1kJ, gain is 1.9 times .

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + TiC 20.0 gm + FeBr ₂ 10.8 gm, Ein: 335 kJ, dE: 43 kJ, TSC at about 250 ° C and Tmax of about 375 ° C, theoretical energy of 22 kJ, gain of 1.95 times.

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + WC 20.0 gm + FeBr ₂ 10.8 gm, Ein: 335 kJ, dE: 32 kJ, TSC at about 230 ° C and Tmax of about 360 ° C, theoretical energy of 22 kJ, gain of 1.45 times.

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + TiC 20.0 gm + MnI ₂ 15.45 gm, Strem, Ein: 269 kJ, dE: 49 kJ, small TSC at about 50 ° C and Tmax of about 350 ° C. The energy gain is about 3.4X (X is about 14.8kJ).

■ 4g CAIII-300 + 1.66g Ca + 1g NaH + 3.09g MnI 2; Ein: 112.0kJ; dE: 9.98kJ; TSC: 178-374 ℃; Tmax: 383 ℃, theoretical energy 5.90kJ, gain is 1.69 times .

■ 0.96 g of CuS, 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder, and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 5.5 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 409 ° C, the theoretical energy is 2.93 kJ, and the gain is 1.88 times.

■ 0.87 g MnS, 1.66 g KH, 1 g Mg powder, and 4 g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 4.7 kJ, but no battery temperature jump was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 412 ° C, the theoretical energy is 1.32 kJ, and the gain is 3.57 times.

■KH 8.3gm+Mg 5.0gm+TiC 20.0gm+MnI ₂ 15.45gm, Ein: 269kJ, dE: 49kJ, small TSC at about 50°C and Tmax is about 350°C, theoretical energy is 18.65kJ, gain is 2.6 times .

■NaH 5.0gm+Mg 5.0gm+TiC 20.0gm+NiBr ₂ 11.0gm, Ein: 245kJ, dE: 43kJ, TSC at about 200° C. and Tmax is about 310° C., theoretical energy is 26 kJ, and gain is 1.6 times.

■KH 8.3gm+Mg 5.0gm+CAII-300 20.0gm+MnCl ₂ 6.3gm, Ein: 333kJ, dE: 34kJ, TSC at about 250°C and Tmax is about 340°C, theoretical energy is 17.6kJ, gain is 2 Times.

■ 2.42 g of InI, 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 4.4 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 438 ° C, the theoretical energy is 1.92 kJ, and the gain is 2.3 times.

■ 1.72 g of InF ₃ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 9.2 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 446 ° C, the theoretical energy is 5 kJ, and the gain is 1.85 times.

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+1.98g As ₂ O ₃ , Ein: 110.5kJ, dE: 17.1kJ, TSC: 325-452°C, Tmax: 471°C, theoretical energy 11.48kJ, gain 1.49 Times.

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+4.66g Bi ₂ O ₃ , Ein: 152.0kJ, dE: 17.7kJ, TSC: 185-403°C, Tmax: 481°C, theoretical energy 13.8kJ, gain 1.28 Times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+2.02g MoCl ₃ ; Ein: 118.0kJ; dE: 11.10kJ; TSC: 342-496°C; Tmax: 496°C, theoretical energy 7.76, gain 1.43 times.

■2.83g PbF ₄ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain is 13.9kJ, and battery temperature suddenly increases by 245 ° C (217-462 ° C) . The maximum battery temperature is 464 ° C, the theoretical energy is 13.38 kJ, and the gain is 1.32 times.

■ 2.78 g of PbCl ₂ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 6.8 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 488 ° C, the theoretical energy is 5.22 kJ, and the gain is 1.3 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1.66g KH+2.19g NiBr ₂ , Ein: 136.0kJ, dE: 7.5kJ, TSC: 275-350°C, Tmax: 385°C, theoretical energy 4.6kJ, gain 1.6 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+2.74g MoCl ₅ , Ein: 96.0kJ, dE: 19.0kJ, TSC: 86-334°C, Tmax: 373°C, theoretical energy 14.06kJ, gain 1.35 times.

■4g CAIII-300+1.66g Ca+1g NaH+2.19g NiBr ₂ ; Ein: 127.1kJ; dE: 10.69kJ; TSC: 300-420°C; Tmax: 10.69°C, theoretical energy 7.67kJ, gain 1.39 times .

■ 5.90g BiI ₃ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain is 10.9kJ, and the battery temperature rises to 70 ° C (217-287 ° C) ). The maximum battery temperature is 458 ° C, the theoretical energy is 8.87 kJ, and the gain is 1.23 times.

■ 1.79g SbF ₃ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain of 11.7kJ, and battery temperature sudden increase of 169 ° C (138-307 ° C) . The maximum battery temperature is 454 ° C, the theoretical energy is 9.21 kJ, and the gain is 1.27 times.

■4g CAIII-300+1.66g Ca+1g NaH+3.09g MnI ₂ , Ein: 111.0kJ, dE: 12.6kJ, TSC: 178-340°C, Tmax: 373°C, theoretical energy 5.9kJ, gain 2.13 times .

■4g CAIII-300+1.66g Ca+1g NaH+1.34g CuCl ₂ ; Ein: 135.2kJ; dE: 12.26kJ; TSC: 250-390°C; Tmax: 437°C, theoretical energy 8.55kJ, gain 1.43 times .

■ 1.50 g of InCl, 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 5.1 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 410 ° C, the theoretical energy is 2.29 kJ, and the gain is 2.22 times.

■ 2.21 g of InCl ₃ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), an energy gain of 10.9 kJ and a sudden increase in battery temperature of 191 ° C (235-426 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 431 ° C, the theoretical energy is 7.11 kJ, and the gain is 1.5 times.

■ 1.95 g of InBr, 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder, and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 6.0 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 435 ° C, the theoretical energy is 2 kJ, and the gain is 3 times.

■ 3.55g InBr ₃ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain is 9.1kJ, and battery temperature suddenly increases by 152 ° C (156-308 ° C) . The maximum battery temperature is 386 ° C, the theoretical energy is 6.92 kJ, and the gain is 1.3 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1.66g KH+3.79g SnI ₂ , Ein: 169.1kJ, dE: 6.0kJ, TSC: 200-289°C, Tmax: 431°C, theoretical energy 4.03kJ, gain 1.49 times.

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + WC 20.0 gm + MnBr ₂ 10.75 gm, Ein: 309 kJ, dE: 35 kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 335 °C. The energy gain is about 1.9X (X is about 18.1kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + CAII-300 20.0 gm + MnBr ₂ 10.75 gm, Ein: 280 kJ, dE: 41 kJ, TSC at about 280 ° C and Tmax of about 350 ° C. The energy gain is about 2.2X (X is about 18.1kJ).

■KH 1.66gm+Mg 1.0gm+TiC 4.0gm+TiF ₃ 1.05gm, 5X battery with CAII-300#1086, Ein: 143kJ, dE: 6kJ, no TSC and Tmax is about 280°C, theoretical energy is 2.5kJ The gain is 2.4 times.

■KH 8.3gm+Mg 5.0gm+CAII-300 20.0gm+FeF ₂ 4.7gm, Ein: 280kJ, dE: 40kJ, TSC at about 260°C and Tmax is about 340°C, theoretical energy is 20.65kJ, gain is 1.93 Times.

■KH 8.3gm+Mg 5.0gm+CAII-300 20.0gm+CuF ₂ 5.1gm, Ein: 203kJ, dE: 57kJ, TSC at about 125°C and Tmax is about 280°C, theoretical energy is 29kJ, gain is 1.96 times .

■ KH 83.0 gm + Mg 50.0 gm + WC 200.0 gm + SnI ₂ 185 gm, URS, Ein: 1310 kJ, dE: 428 kJ, TSC at about 140 ° C and Tmax of about 350 ° C, theoretical energy of 200 kJ, gain of 2.14 times.

■ 061009 KAWFC1 #1102, NaH 1.0 gm + Mg 1.0 gm + WC 4.0 gm + GdBr ₃ 3.97 gm, Ein: 148 kJ, dE: 7 kJ, small TSC at about 300 ° C and Tmax of about 420 ° C. The energy gain is about 3.5X (X is about 2kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + CAII-300 20.0 gm + FeO 3.6 gm, Ein: 355 kJ, dE: 24 kJ, small TSC at about 260 ° C and Tmax of about 360 ° C. The energy gain is about 1.45X (X is about 16.6kJ).

■KH 83.0gm+Mg 50.0gm+WC 200.0gm+SnI ₂ 185gm, Rovin, Ein: 1379kJ, dE: 416kJ, TSC at about 140°C and Tmax is about 350°C, theoretical energy is 200kJ, gain is 2 times .

■KH 8.3gm+Mg 5.0gm+CAII-300 20.0gm+CoI ₂ 15.65gm, Ein: 361kJ, dE: 69kJ, TSC at about 200°C and Tmax is about 410°C, theoretical energy is 26.35kJ, gain is 2.6 Times.

■ KH 8.3 gm + 5.0 gm + CAII 300 20.0 gm + FeS 4.4 gm, Ein: 312 kJ, dE: 22 kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 350 °C. The energy gain is about 1.7X (X is about 12.3kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + WC 40.0 gm + SnI ₂ 18.5 gm, Ein: 315 kJ, dE: 27 kJ, small TSC at about 140 ° C and Tmax of about 340 ° C. The energy gain is about 1.35X (X is about 20kJ).

■NaH 5.0 gm+Mg 5.0 gm+WC 20.0 gm+MnI ₂ 15.45 gm, Ein: 108 kJ, dE: 30 kJ, TSC at about 70 ° C and Tmax of about 170 ° C, theoretical energy of 14.8 kJ, and gain of 2 times.

■NaH 5.0 gm+Mg 5.0 gm+WC 20.0 gm+NiBr ₂ 11.0 gm, Ein: 248 kJ, dE: 34 kJ, TSC at about 170 ° C and Tmax of about 300 ° C. The energy gain is about 1.7X (X is about 20kJ), the theoretical energy is 26.25kJ, and the gain is 1.3 times.

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + WC 20.0 gm + NiBr ₂ 11.0 gm, Ein: 291 kJ, dE: 30 kJ, small TSC at about 250 ° C and Tmax of about 340 ° C. The energy gain is about 1.5X (X is about 20kJ), the theoretical energy is 26.25kJ, and the gain is 1.14 times.

■ NaH 5.0 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + WC 20.0 gm + NiBr ₂ 11.0 gm, repeating battery #1105, Ein: 242 kJ, dE: 33 kJ, TSC at about 70 ° C and Tmax of about 280 ° C. The energy gain is about 1.65X (X is about 20kJ).

■NaH 5.0 gm+Mg 5.0 gm+CAII-300 20.0 gm+InCl ₃ 11.1 gm, Ein: 189 kJ, dE: 48 kJ, small TSC at about 80 ° C and Tmax of about 260 ° C. The energy gain is about 1.5X (X is about 31kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + CAII-300 20.0 gm + MnI ₂ 15.45 gm, Ein: 248 kJ, dE: 46 kJ, small TSC at about 200 ° C and Tmax of about 325 ° C. The energy gain is about 3X (X is about 14.8 kJ).

■ 2.96g FeBr ₃ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain of 12.5kJ, and battery temperature sudden increase of 77 ° C (72-149 ° C) . The maximum battery temperature is 418 ° C, the theoretical energy is 8.35 kJ, and the gain is 1.5 times.

■ 0.72 g FeO, 1.66 g KH, 1 g Mg powder, and 4 g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 6.7 kJ, but no battery temperature jump was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 448 ° C, the theoretical energy is 3.3 kJ, and the gain is 2 times.

■ 1.26 g of MnCl ₂ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 8.6 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 437 ° C, the theoretical energy is 3.52 kJ, and the gain is 2.45 times.

■ 1.13 g FeF ₃ , 1.66 g KH, 1 g Mg powder, and 4 g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 12.6 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 618 ° C, the theoretical energy is 6.44 kJ, and the energy gain is 1.96 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+3.97g GdBr ₃ , Ein: 143.1kJ, dE: 5.4kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 403°C, theoretical energy 1.99kJ, gain 2.73 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+1.57g SnF ₂ ; Ein: 139.0kJ; dE: 7.24kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 413° C., theoretical energy 5.28kJ, gain 1.37 times.

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+4.04g Sb ₂ S ₅ , Ein: 125.0kJ, dE: 19.3kJ, TSC: 421-651C, Tmax: 651°C, theoretical energy is 12.37kJ, gain is 1.56 times .

■ 1.36 g of ZnCl ₂ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder, and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 6.6 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 402 ° C, the theoretical energy is 4.34 kJ, and the gain is 1.52 times.

■ 1.03 g of ZnF ₂ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder, and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 6.5 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 427 ° C, the theoretical energy is 3.76 kJ, and the gain is 1.73 times.

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+2.22g InCl ₃ , experimental dE: -12.6kJ, consider the reaction: InCl ₃ (c) +3NaH(c)+1.5Mg(c)=3NaCl(c)+ In(c)+1.5MgH ₂ (c)Q=-640.45 kJ/reaction, theoretical chemical reaction energy: -6.4kJ, excess heat: -6.2kJ, 2.0X excess heat.

■ 1.08 g of VF ₃ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 9.5 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 447 ° C, the theoretical energy is 4.9 kJ, and the gain is 1.94 times.

■ 8.3 g KH + 5.0 g Mg + 20.0 g AC (II-300) + 5.4 g VF ₃ , Ein: 286 kJ, dE: 58 kJ, theoretical energy 24.5 kJ, gain 2.3 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+1.72g InF ₃ , Ein: 134.0kJ, dE: 8.1kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 391°C, theoretical energy 5kJ, gain 1.62 times.

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1.66g KH+1.02g CuF ₂ , experiment dE:-9.4kJ, consider the reaction: CuF ₂ (c)+Mg(c)=MgF ₂ (c)+Cu(c) Q = -581.5 kJ / reaction, theoretical chemical reaction energy: -5.82kJ, excess heat: -3.59kJ, 1.6X excess heat.

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+2.83g PbF ₄ , experimental dE: -17.6kJ, consider the reaction: PbF ₄ (c)+2Mg(c)+4NaH(c)=2MgH ₂ (c)+ 4NaF(c)+Pb(c)Q=-1290.0 kJ/reaction, theoretical chemical reaction energy: -12.9 kJ, excess heat: -4.7 kJ, 1.4X excess heat.

■ KH 1.66 gm + Mg 1.0 gm + TiC 4.0 gm + SnI ₄ 6.26 gm, Ein: 97 kJ, dE: 17 kJ, TSC at about 150 ° C and Tmax of about 370 ° C, theoretical energy of 10.1 kJ, and gain of 1.7 times.

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1.66g KH+3.7g TiBr ₄ , experimental dE: -16.1kJ, consider the reaction: TiBr ₄ (c) + 4KH (c) + 2Mg (c) + C (s) = 4KBr(c)+TiC(c)+2MgH ₂ (c)Q=-1062.3 kJ/reaction, theoretical chemical reaction energy: -10.7kJ, excess heat: -5.4kJ, 1.5X excess heat.

BI ₃

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+2.4g BI ₃ , Ein: 128.1kJ, dE: 7.9kJ, TSC: 180-263°C, Tmax: 365°C, theoretical energy 5.55kJ, gain 1.4 times.

MnBr ₂

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1.66g KH+2.15g MnBr ₂ , experiment dE: -7.0kJ, consider the reaction: MnBr ₂ (c)+2KH(c)+Mg(c)=2KBr(c)+ Mn(c)+MgH ₂ (c)Q=-362.6 kJ/reaction, theoretical chemical reaction energy: -3.63 kJ, excess heat: -3.4 kJ, 1.9X excess heat.

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + WC 20.0 gm + MnBr ₂ 10.75 gm, Ein: 309 kJ, dE: 35 kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 335 °C. The energy gain is about 1.9X (X is about 18.1kJ).

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + CAII-300 20.0 gm + MnBr ₂ 10.75 gm, Ein: 280 kJ, dE: 41 kJ, TSC at about 280 ° C and Tmax of about 350 ° C. The energy gain is about 2.2X (X is about 18.1kJ).

FeF ₂

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1.66g KH+0.94g FeF ₂ , experiment dE:-9.8kJ, consider the reaction: FeF ₂ (c)+Mg(c)=MgF ₂ (c)+Fe(c) , Q = -412.9 kJ / reaction, theoretical chemical reaction energy: -4.13kJ, excess heat: -5.77kJ, 2.4X excess heat.

■KH 8.3gm+Mg 5.0gm+CAII-300 20.0gm+FeF ₂ 4.7gm, Ein: 280kJ, dE: 40kJ, TSC at about 260°C and Tmax is about 340°C, theoretical energy is 20.65kJ, gain is 1.94 Times.

TiF ₃

■KH 1.66gm+Mg 1.0gm+TiC 4.0gm+TiF ₃ 1.05gm (5X battery #1086 with CAII-300), Ein: 143kJ, dE: 6kJ, no TSC and Tmax is about 280°C, theoretical energy is 2.5 The gain is 2.4 times.

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + CAII-300 20.0 gm + TiF ₃ 5.25 gm, Ein: 268 kJ, dE: 7 kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 280 °C. No energy gain (X is about 21.7 kJ).

CuF ₂

■KH 8.3gm+Mg 5.0gm+CAII-300 20.0gm+CuF ₂ 5.1gm, Ein: 203kJ, dE: 57kJ, TSC at about 125°C and Tmax is about 280°C, theoretical energy is 29.1kJ, gain is 2 Times.

MnI ₂

■NaH 4.0gm+Mg 4.0gm+CAII-300 16.0gm+MnI ₂ 12.36gm (4X proportionally increased), Ein: 253kJ, dE: 30kJ, no TSC and Tmax is about 300°C, theoretical energy is 11.8kJ, gain It is 2.5 times.

■ Thermal measurement of 3.09g MnI ₂ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain of 8.8kJ, and battery temperature sudden increase of 92 ° C (172 -264 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 410 ° C, the theoretical energy is 2.96 kJ, and the gain is 3 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+3.09g MnI ₂ , Ein: 126.1kJ, dE: 8.0kJ, TSC: 157-241°C, Tmax: 385°C, theoretical energy 2.96kJ, gain 2.69 times.

ZnBr ₂

■ 2.25g ZnBr ₂ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain is 10.3kJ, and battery temperature suddenly increases 82 ° C (253-335 ° C) . The maximum battery temperature is 456 ° C, the theoretical energy is 3.56 kJ, and the gain is 2.9 times.

■NaH 5.0gm+Mg 5.0gm+CAII-300 20.0gm+ZnBr ₂ 11.25gm, Ein: 291kJ, dE: 26kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 330°C, theoretical energy of 17.8kJ, gain of 1.46 times.

CoCl ₂

■ 1.3g CoCl ₂ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain is 10.4kJ, and the battery temperature rises to 105 ° C (316-421 ° C) ). The maximum battery temperature is 450 ° C, the theoretical energy is 5.2 kJ, and the gain is 2 times.

■ 1.3g CoCl ₂ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain is 9.6kJ, and battery temperature suddenly increased by 181 ° C (295-476 ° C) . The maximum battery temperature is 478 ° C, the theoretical energy is 5.2 kJ, and the gain is 1.89 times.

SnBr ₂

■ 2.8 g of SnBr ₂ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), an energy gain of 14.2 kJ, and a sudden increase in temperature of 148 ° C (148-296 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 376 ° C, the theoretical energy is 3.75 kJ, and the gain is 3.78 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+2.79g SnBr2, Ein: 116.0kJ, dE: 7.7kJ, TSC: 135-236°C, Tmax: 370°C, theoretical energy 3.75kJ, gain of 2 times.

■KH 8.3gm+Mg powder 5.0gm+CAII 300 20.0gm+SnBr ₂ 11.4gm, Ein: 211kJ, dE: 41kJ, TSC at about 170°C and Tmax is about 300°C; theoretical energy is 15.5kJ, gain is 2.6 Times.

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + TiC 20.0 gm + SnBr ₂ 4.0 gm, Ein 229 kJ, dE: 46 kJ, TSC at about 150 ° C and Tmax of about 310 ° C and a gain of about 2.4X (X is about 19 kJ), The theoretical energy is 18.8 kJ and the gain is 2.4 times.

■ KH 1.66 gm + Mg 1.0 gm + WC 4.0 gm + SnBr ₂ 2.8 gm, Ein: 101 kJ, dE: 10 kJ, TSC at about 150 ° C and Tmax of about 350 ° C, theoretical energy of 3.75 kJ, gain of 2.66 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300 + 1.66g KH + 2.79g SnBr ₂ , Ein: 132.0kJ, dE: 9.6kJ, TSC: 168-263, Tmax: 381 ° C, theoretical energy 4.29kJ, gain 2.25 times.

■1 g Mg+1.66 g KH+2.79 g SnBr ₂ ; Ein: 123.0 kJ; dE: 7.82 kJ; TSC: 125-220 ° C; Tmax: 386 ° C, theoretical energy 5.85 kJ, gain 1.33 times.

SnI ₂

■ KH 6.64 gm + Mg powder 4.0 gm + TiC 18.0 gm + SnI ₂ 14.8 gm, Ein: 232 kJ, dE: 47 kJ, TSC at about 150 ° C and Tmax of about 280 ° C. The energy gain is about 3.6X (X is about 12.8kJ), the theoretical energy is 12.6kJ, and the gain is 3.7x.

■ 3.7 g of SnI ₂ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 11.9 kJ, but no temperature increase was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 455 ° C, the theoretical energy is 3.2 kJ, and the gain is 3.7 times.

■ KH 1.6 gm + Mg powder 1.0 gm + TiC 4.0 gm + SnI ₂ 3.7 gm, Ein: 162 kJ, dE: 13 kJ; TSC at 100 ° C and Tmax of about 490 ° C; theoretical energy of 3.2 kJ, gain of 4 times.

■KH 8.3gm+Mg powder 5.0gm+CAII 300 20.0gm+SnI ₂ 18.5gm, Ein: 221kJ, dE: 47kJ, TSC at about 170°C and Tmax is about 300°C, theoretical energy is 15.9kJ, gain is 3. Times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+3.73g SnI ₂ ; Ein: 121.9kJ; dE: 7.56kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 391°C, theoretical energy 3.2kJ, gain 2.36 times.

■1.66g KH+3.79g SnI ₂ , Ein: 114.0kJ, dE: 8.8kJ, TSC: 161-259°C, Tmax: 359°C, theoretical energy 4kJ, gain 2.17 times.

SnCl ₂

■NaH 5.0gm+Mg 5.0gm+CAII-300 20.0gm+SnCl ₂ 9.6gm, Ein:181kJ, dE: 30kJ, TSC at about 140°C and Tmax is about 280°C, theoretical energy is 19kJ, gain is 1.57 times .

NiBr ₂

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+2.19g NiBr ₂ ; Ein: 126.0kJ; dE: 12.01kJ; TSC: 290-370°C; Tmax: 417°C, theoretical energy 4kJ, gain of 3 times.

■NaH 1.0gm+MgH ₂ powder 1.0gm+TiC 4.0gm, mixture +NiBr ₂ 2.2gm, Ein: 121kJ, dE: 11kJ, temperature rises at 260°C and Tmax is about 390°C, theoretical energy is 4kJ, gain It is 2.75 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Al+1g NaH+2.19g NiBr ₂ ; Ein: 122.0kJ; dE: 7.78kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 392° C., theoretical energy 4kJ, gain 1.95 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+0.33g LiH+2.19g NiBr ₂ ; Ein: 128.0kJ; dE: 10.72kJ; TSC: 270-436°C; Tmax: 440° C., theoretical energy 4kJ, gain 2.68 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1.66g KH+2.19g NiBr ₂ Ein: 126.0kJ; dE: 10.45kJ; TSC: 285-423°C; Tmax: 423°C, theoretical energy 4kJ, gain 2.6 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g MgH ₂ +1g NaH+2.19g NiBr ₂ ; Ein: 138.1kJ; dE: 8.12kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 425° C., theoretical energy 4kJ, gain 2 times.

■NaH 5.0gm+Mg powder 5.0gm+activated carbon CAII 300 20.0gm, mixture +NiBr ₂ 11.0gm (theoretical energy is 23.6kJ), Ein: 224kJ, dE: 53kJ, the temperature rises at 160°C and the Tmax is about 280. °C, the theoretical energy is 20kJ, and the gain is 2.65 times.

■NaH 1.0 gm+Mg 1.0 gm+WC 4.0 gm+NiBr ₂ 2.2 gm, Ein: 197 kJ, dE: 11 kJ, small TSC at about 200 ° C and Tmax of about 500 ° C; theoretical energy of 4 kJ, gain of 2.75 times.

■NaH 50.0gm+Mg 50.0gm+CAII-300 200.0gm+NiBr ₂ 109.5gm, Ein:1990kJ, dE:577kJ, TSC at about 140°C and Tmax is about 980°C, theoretical energy is 199kJ, gain is 2.9 times .

■ Control without Mg: 4g CAIII-300+1g NaH+2.19g NiBr ₂ ; Ein: 134.0kJ; dE: 5.37kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 375°C, theoretical energy 3.98kJ, gain 1.35 times .

Control: 1 g Mg + 1 g NaH + 2.19 g NiBr ₂ ; Ein: 129.0 kJ; dE: 5.13 kJ; TSC: 195-310 ° C; Tmax: 416 ° C, theoretical energy 5.25 kJ.

■ Control: 1 g NaH + 2.19 g NiBr ₂ ; Ein: 138.2 kJ; dE: -0.18 kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 377 ° C, theoretical energy 3.98 kJ.

CuCl ₂

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+1.34g CuCl ₂ , Ein: 119.0kJ, dE: 10.5kJ, TSC: 250-381°C, Tmax: 393°C, theoretical energy 4.9kJ, gain 2.15 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Al+1g NaH+1.34g CuCl ₂ , Ein: 126.0kJ, dE: 7.4kJ, TSC: 229-354°C, Tmax: 418°C, theoretical energy 4.9kJ, gain 1.5 times.

■4g CAIII-300+1g MgH ₂ +1g NaH+1.34g CuCl ₂ , Ein: 144.0kJ, dE: 8.3kJ, TSC: 229-314°C, Tmax: 409°C, theoretical energy 4.9kJ, gain 1.69 times .

■NaH 5.0gm+Mg powder 5.0gm+activated carbon CAII 300 20.0gm, mixture +CuCl ₂ 10.75gm (theoretical energy is 45kJ), Ein:268kJ, dE:80kJ, the temperature rises at 210°C and the Tmax is about 360°C. The theoretical energy is 39kJ and the gain is 2 times.

■ 1 吋 large capacity battery 1.4g CuCl ₂ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain of 14.6kJ, and temperature sudden increase of 190 ° C ( 188-378 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 437 ° C, the theoretical energy is 4.9 kJ, and the gain is 3 times.

■KH 8.3gm+Mg powder 5.0gm+CAII-300 20.0gm+CuCl ₂ 6.7gm, Ein: 255kJ, dE: 55kJ, TSC at about 200°C and Tmax is about 320°C, theoretical energy is 24.5kJ, the gain is 2.24 times.

CuCl

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+1g CuCl; Ein: 128.1kJ; dE: 4.94kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 395°C, theoretical energy 2.18kJ, gain 2.26 times.

CoI ₂

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+3.13g CoI ₂ , Ein: 141.1kJ, dE: 9.7kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 411°C, consider the reaction: 2NaH(c)+CoI ₂ (c) +Mg(c)=2NaI(c)+Co(c)+MgH ₂ (c)Q=-449.8 kJ/reaction, theoretical chemical reaction energy: -4.50 kJ, excess heat: -5.18 kJ, gain 1.9 times .

■ 3.13g CoI ₂ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain is 10.7kJ, and battery temperature suddenly increases by 117 ° C (248-365 ° C) . The maximum battery temperature is 438 ° C, the theoretical energy is 5.27 kJ, and the gain is 2.03 times.

ZnI ₂

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+3.19g ZnI ₂ , Ein: 157.1kJ, dE: 5.8kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 330°C, consider the reaction: 2NaH(c)+ZnI ₂ (c) +Mg(c)=2NaI(c)+Zn(c)+MgH ₂ (c)Q=-330.47 kJ/reaction, theoretical chemical reaction energy: -3.30kJ, excess heat: -2.50kJ, gain 1.75 times .

■ 3.19g ZnI ₂ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain is 5.9kJ, and the battery temperature rises to 79 ° C (180-259 ° C) ). The maximum battery temperature is 423 ° C, the theoretical energy is 4.29 kJ, and the gain is 1.38 times.

NiF ₂

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+0.97g NiF ₂ , Ein: 135.0kJ, dE: 7.9kJ, TSC: 253-335°C, Tmax: 385°C, consider the reaction: 2NaH(c)+NiF ₂ (c) +Mg(c)=2NaF(c)+Ni(c)+MgH ₂ (c)Q=-464.4 kJ/reaction, theoretical chemical reaction energy: -4.64kJ, excess heat: -3.24kJ, gain It is 1.7 times.

■ 0.97g NiF ₂ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain is 8.7kJ, and the battery temperature rises to 63 ° C (256-319 ° C ). The maximum battery temperature is 410 ° C, the theoretical energy is 5.25 kJ, and the gain is 1.66 times.

C oBr

₂

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+2.19g CoBr ₂ , Ein: 140.0kJ, dE: 7.6kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 461°C, consider the reaction: 2NaH(c)+CoBr ₂ (c) +Mg(c)=2NaBr(c)+Co(c)+MgH ₂ (c)Q=-464 kJ/reaction, theoretical chemical reaction energy: -4.64kJ, excess heat: -2.9kJ, gain 1.64 times .

■ 2.19g CoBr ₂ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain of 10.4kJ, and battery temperature sudden increase of 110 ° C (306-416 ° C) . The maximum battery temperature is 450 ° C, the theoretical energy is 5.27 kJ, and the gain is 1.97 times.

■ 2.19 g of CoBr ₂ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder, and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 10.2 kJ, but no sudden increase in battery temperature was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 446 ° C, the theoretical energy is 5.27 kJ, and the gain is 1.94 times.

FeCl ₂

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+1.27g FeCl ₂ , Ein: 155.0kJ, dE: 10.5kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 450°C, theoretical energy 3.86kJ, gain 2.85 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Al+1g NaH+1.27g FeCl ₂ , Ein: 141.7kJ, dE: 7.0kJ, TSC: none, Tmax: 440° C., theoretical energy 3.86 kJ, gain 1.9 times.

■1吋 large capacity battery with 1.3g FeCl ₂ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300°C) with an energy gain of 11.5kJ and a sudden increase in temperature of 142°C ( 287-429 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 448 ° C, the theoretical energy is 4.1 kJ, and the gain is 2.8 times.

■NaH 5.0gm+Mg powder 5.0gm+activated carbon CAII 300 20.0gm, mixture +FeCl ₂ 6.35gm, Ein:296kJ, dE:37kJ, the temperature rises at 220°C and Tmax is about 330°C, the theoretical energy is 18.4kJ The gain is 2 times.

FeCl ₃

■ 2.7 g FeCl ₃ , 1.66 g KH, 1 g Mg powder and 4 g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain is 21.3 kJ, and battery temperature suddenly increases by 205 ° C (147-352 ° C) . The maximum battery temperature is 445 ° C, the theoretical energy is 10.8 kJ, and the gain is 1.97 times.

■NaH 1.0 gm + Mg powder 1.0 gm + TiC 4.0 gm + FeCl ₃ 1.6 gm, Ein: 88 kJ, dE: 14 kJ; TSC at 80 ° C and Tmax is about 350 ° C, theoretical energy is 6.65 kJ, and the gain is 2.1 times.

■ KH 8.3 gm + MgH ₂ powder 5.0 gm + CAII 300 20.0 gm + FeCl ₃ 8.1 gm, Ein: 253 kJ, dE: 52 kJ /; no TSC and Tmax of about 300 ° C, theoretical energy of 33 kJ, gain of 1.56 times.

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg 5.0 gm + CAII-300 20.0 gm + FeCl ₂ 6.5 gm, Ein: 299 kJ, dE: 44 kJ, no TSC and Tmax of about 350 ° C, theoretical energy of 18.9 kJ, and gain of 2.3 times.

FeBr ₂

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1.66g KH+2.16g FeBr ₂ ; Ein: 144.0kJ; dE: 9.90kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 455° C., theoretical energy 3.6kJ, gain 2.75 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g MgH ₂ +1g NaH+2.16g FeBr ₂ ; Ein: 142.0kJ; dE: 8.81kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 428° C., theoretical energy 3.6kJ, gain 2.44 times.

■4g CAIII-300+1g MgH ₂ +0.33g LiH+2.16g FeBr ₂ ; Ein: 164.0kJ; dE: 8.68kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 450°C, theoretical energy 3.6kJ, gain 2.4 times .

■4g CAIII-300+1g MgH ₂ +1.66g KH+2.16g FeBr ₂ ; Ein: 159.8kJ; dE: 9.07kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 459°C, theoretical energy 3.6kJ, gain 2.5 times .

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+2.96g FeBr ₂ , experiment dE: -6.7kJ, consider the reaction: 2NaH(c)+FeBr ₂ (c)+Mg(c)=2NaBr(c)+Fe (c) +MgH ₂ (c)Q=-435.1 kJ/reaction, theoretical chemical reaction energy: -4.35 kJ, excess heat: -2.35 kJ, 1.54X excess heat.

NiCl ₂

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+1.30g NiCl ₂ , Ein: 112.0kJ, dE: 9.7kJ, TSC: 230-368°C, Tmax: 376°C, theoretical energy 4kJ, gain 2.4 times.

■1吋 large capacity battery 1.3g NiCl ₂ , 0.33g LiH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain is 9.2kJ, and the temperature rise changes to 100 ° C (205-305 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 432 ° C, the theoretical energy is 4 kJ, and the gain is 2.3 times.

■1吋 large capacity battery 1.3g NiCl ₂ , 0.33g LiH, 1g Al powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain is 8.0kJ, and the temperature rise changes to 85 ° C (206-291 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 447 ° C, the theoretical energy is 4 kJ, and the gain is 2 times.

CuB r

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+1.44g CuBr; Ein: 125.0kJ; dE: 4.67kJ; TSC: not observed; Tmax: 382°C, theoretical energy 2kJ, gain 2.33 times.

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1.66g KH+1.44g CuBr, experimental dE:-7.6kJ, consider the reaction: CuBr(c)+KH(c)+0.5Mg(c)=KBr(c)+Cu (c) +0.5MgH ₂ (c) Q=-269.2 kJ/reaction, theoretical chemical reaction energy: -2.70 kJ, excess heat: -4.90 kJ, 2.8X excess heat.

CuBr ₂

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+2.23g CuBr ₂ ; Ein: 118.1kJ; dE: 8.04kJ; TSC: 108-180° C; Tmax: 369° C., theoretical energy 4.68 kJ, gain 1.7 times.

SnF ₄

■ 2.0 g of SnF ₄ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 18.4 kJ, but no temperature increase was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 576 ° C, the theoretical energy is 9.3 kJ, and the gain is 1.98 times.

AlI ₃

■ 4.1 g AlI ₃ , 1.66 g KH, 1 g Mg powder and 4 g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 10.1 kJ, but no temperature increase was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 412 ° C, the theoretical energy is 6.68 kJ, and the gain is 1.51 times.

■KH 8.3gm+Mg 5.0gm+CAII-300 20.0gm+AlI ₃ 20.5gm, Ein: 318kJ, dE: 48kJ, theoretical energy is 33.4kJ, and gain is 1.4 times.

SiCl ₄

■ 1.7 g of SiCl ₄ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), an energy gain of 12.6 kJ, and a sudden increase in temperature of 68 ° C (366-434 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 473 ° C, the theoretical energy is 7.32 kJ, and the gain is 1.72 times.

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+0.01mol SiCl ₄ (1.15cc); Ein: 114.0kJ; dE: 14.19kJ; TSC: 260-410°C; Tmax: 423°C, theoretical energy 7.32kJ, gain It is 1.94 times.

AlBr ₃

■ 2.7 g of AlBr ₃ , 1.66 g of KH, 1 g of Mg powder, and 4 g of CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 7.5 kJ, but no temperature increase was observed. The maximum battery temperature is 412 ° C, the theoretical energy is 4.46 kJ, and the gain is 1.68 times.

FeCl ₃

■ 2.7 g FeCl ₃ , 1.66 g KH, 1 g Mg powder and 4 g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain is 21.3 kJ, and battery temperature suddenly increases by 205 ° C (147-352 ° C) The maximum battery temperature is 445 ° C, the theoretical energy is 10.8 kJ, and the gain is 1.97 times.

SeBr ₄

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+3.99g SeBr ₄ ; Ein: 112.0kJ; dE: 23.40kJ; TSC: 132-448°C; Tmax: 448° C., theoretical energy: 15.7kJ, gain 1.5 times.

SnBr ₄

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+4.38g SnBr ₄ ; Ein: 98.0kJ; dE: 12.44kJ; TSC: 120-270°C; Tmax: 359°C, theoretical energy 8.4kJ, gain 1.48 times.

■ KH 8.3 gm + Mg powder 5.0 gm + CAII 300 20.0 gm + SnBr ₄ 22.0 gm, Ein: 163 kJ, dE: 78 kJ; TSC at 60 ° C and Tmax of about 290 ° C, theoretical energy of 42 kJ, gain of 1.86 times.

SiBr ₄

■ 3.5 g SiBr ₄ , 1.66 g KH, 1 g Mg powder and 4 g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain was 11.9 kJ, and the temperature suddenly increased by 99 ° C (304-403 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 449 ° C, the theoretical energy is 7.62 kJ, and the gain is 1.56 times.

TeBr ₄

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+4.47g TeBr ₄ , Ein: 99.0kJ, dE: 18.4kJ, TSC: 186-411°C, Tmax: 418°C, theoretical energy 11.3kJ, gain 1.63 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Al+1g NaH+4.47g TeBr ₄ , Ein: 101.0kJ, dE: 14.7kJ, TSC: 144-305°C, Tmax: 374°C, theoretical energy 11.4kJ, gain 1.29 times.

■ 1-inch large-capacity battery _{4.5g TeBr 4, 1.66g KH, 1g} MgH 2 powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ℃), an energy gain of 19.1kJ, and a sudden increase in the temperature of 218 deg.] C (172-390 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 410 ° C, the theoretical energy is 12.65 kJ, and the gain is 1.5 times.

■ 1吋 large capacity battery 4.5g TeBr ₄ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4gCA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain is 23.5kJ, and the temperature suddenly increases by 247 ° C (184 -431 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 436 ° C, the theoretical energy is 12.4 kJ, and the gain is 1.89 times.

■KH 6.64gm+Mg powder 4.0gm+activated carbon CAII 300 16gm+TeBr ₄ 18gm (theoretical kJ) (80% 5X proportionally increased), Ein: 213kJ, dE: 77kJ, temperature rises at 140°C and Tmax is about At 320 ° C, the theoretical energy is 48.4 kJ and the gain is 1.59 times.

TeCl ₄

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+2.7g TeCl ₄ ; Ein: 99.0kJ; dE: 16.76kJ; TSC: 114-300°C; Tmax: 385°C, theoretical energy 13kJ, gain 1.29 times.

■ 1 吋 large capacity battery with 2.7 g TeCl ₄ , 0.33 g LiH, 1 g MgH ₂ powder and 4 g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain of 20.4 kJ, and temperature sudden increase of 140 ° C (138-278 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 399 ° C, the theoretical energy is 12.1 kJ, and the gain is 1.69 times.

■ 1 吋 large capacity battery with 2.7 g TeCl ₄ , 0.33 g LiH, 1 g Mg powder and 4 g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C) with an energy gain of 17.2 kJ and a sudden temperature increase of 240 ° C ( 137-377 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 398 ° C, the theoretical energy is 12.8 kJ, and the gain is 1.34 times.

■ 1 吋 large capacity battery 2.7 g TeCl ₄ , 1.66 g KH, 1 g MgH ₂ powder and 4 g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C). The energy gain was 15.6 kJ and the temperature suddenly increased by 216 ° C (139-355 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 358 ° C, the theoretical energy is 12.1 kJ, and the gain is 1.29 times.

■ 1 吋 large capacity battery with 2.7 g TeCl ₄ , 1.66 g KH, 1 g Al powder and 4 g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain of 19.4 kJ, and temperature increase of 202 ° C ( 89-291 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 543 ° C, the theoretical energy is 10.9 kJ, and the gain is 1.78 times.

■ 1 吋 large capacity battery with 2.7 g TeCl ₄ , 0.33 g LiH, 1 g Al powder and 4 g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C) with an energy gain of 19.0 kJ and a sudden temperature increase of 288 ° C ( 155-443 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 443 ° C, the theoretical energy is 10.9 kJ, and the gain is 1.74 times.

■ 1 吋 large capacity battery with 2.7 g TeCl ₄ , 1.66 g KH, 1 g Mg powder and 4 g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C) with an energy gain of 17.7 kJ and a sudden temperature increase of 208 ° C ( 84-292 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 396 ° C, the theoretical energy is 13 kJ, and the gain is 1.36 times.

■ 1 吋 large capacity battery with 2.7 g TeCl ₄ , 1.66 g KH, 1 g Al powder and 4 g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C) with an energy gain of 18.7 kJ and a sudden temperature increase of 224 ° C ( 112-336 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 398 ° C, the theoretical energy is 12 kJ, and the gain is 1.56 times.

SeCl ₄

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+2.21g SeCl ₄ ; Ein: 93.0kJ; dE: 22.14kJ; TSC: 141-435°C; Tmax: 435° C., theoretical energy 15kJ, gain 1.48 times.

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1.66g KH+2.20g SeCl ₄ , experiment dE: -25.2kJ, consider the reaction: SeCl ₄ (c)+4KH(c)+3Mg(c)=4KCl(c)+ MgSe(c)+2MgH ₂ (c)Q=-1750.4 kJ/reaction, theoretical chemical reaction energy: -17.5 kJ, excess heat: -7.7 kJ, 1.44X excess heat.

CF ₄

■NaH 50gm+Al 50gm+activated carbon CAII300 200gm+CF ₄ 0.3mol; 45PSIG storage battery volume: 2221.8CC, Ein: 2190kJ, dE: 482kJ, temperature rises at 200°C and Tmax is about 760°C, theoretical energy is 345kJ, the gain is 1.4 times.

■ After evacuation, NaH 50.0 gm + Mg powder 50 gm + activated carbon CAII-300 200 gm + CF ₄ 75-9.9 PSIG. The reservoir volume is 1800 cc and for this pressure drop, n = 0.356 mol, and the theoretical energy is about 392 kJ, Ein: 1810 kJ, dE: 765 kJ, the temperature rises at 170 ° C and the Tmax is about 1000 ° C and the gain is 765/392=1.95X.

■NaH 1.0gm+ (Mg powder 1.0gm + activated carbon CAII 300 4gm) ball mill + CF ₄ 0.0123mol, and the theoretical energy is about 13.6kJ, Ein: 143kJ, dE: 25kJ, the temperature rises at 250 ° C and the Tmax is about 500. °C and the energy gain is about 1.8X.

■NaH 1.0gm+ (Mg powder 1.0gm + activated carbon CAII-300 4gm) ball mill + CF ₄ about 0.01mol, theoretical energy is about 10.2kJ, Ein: 121kJ, dE: 18kJ, temperature rises at 260 ° C and Tmax is about 500 ° C and an energy gain of about 1.7X.

■NaH 1.0gm+ (Mg powder 1.0gm + activated carbon CAII-300 4gm) ball mill + CF ₄ 0.006mol, and the theoretical energy is about 7.2kJ, Ein: 133kJ, dE: 15kJ, the temperature rises at 300 ° C and Tmax is about 440 ° C and an energy gain of about 2.0X.

■4g CAIII-300+1g MgH ₂ +3.55g Rb+0.0082mol CF ₄ +0.0063mol H ₂ ;Ein:76.0kJ; dE:20.72kJ; TSC:30-200°C; Tmax:348°C, theoretical energy 10kJ The gain is 2 times.

S F ₆

■NaH 50gm+MgH ₂ 50gm+activated carbon CAII300 200gm+SF ₆ 0.29mol; 43 PSIG storage battery volume: 2221.8CC, Ein: 1760kJ, dE: 920kJ, temperature rises at about 140°C and Tmax is about 1100°C. The theoretical energy is 638 kJ and the gain is 1.44 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300 + 1g MgH 2 + 1g NaH + 0.0094mo 1 SF 6; Ein: 96.7kJ; dE: 33.14kJ; TSC: 110-455 ℃; Tmax: 455 ℃, theoretical energy 20.65kJ, excess 12.5kJ The gain is 1.6 times.

■NaH 1.0gm+Al powder 1.0gm+activated carbon CAII 300 4gm ball mill+SF ₆ 0.01mol, and the theoretical energy is about 20kJ, Ein: 95kJ, dE: 30kJ, the temperature rise changes at about 100°C and the Tmax is about 400°C. The theoretical energy is 20.4kJ, the excess is 9.6kJ, and the gain is 1.47 times.

■NaH 1.0gm+MgH ₂ powder 1.0gm+activated carbon CAII 300 4gm ball mill + SF ₆ 0.01mol, and the theoretical energy is about 22kJ, Ein: 85kJ, dE: 28kJ, the temperature rise changes at about 110°C and the Tmax is about 410. °C, the theoretical energy is 22kJ, the excess is 6kJ, and the gain is 1.27 times.

■NaH 1.0gm+Al nanopowder 1.0gm+activated carbon CAII 300 4gm ball mill+SF ₆ 0.005mol, Ein: 107kJ, dE: 21kJ, temperature rise change at about 160°C and Tmax is about 380°C, theoretical energy is 10.2 kJ, the gain is 2 times.

■NaH 1.0gm+Mg powder 1.0gm+activated carbon CAII 300 4gm ball mill+SF ₆ 0.005mol, Ein: 104kJ, dE: 18kJ, temperature rise change at about 150°C and Tmax is about 370°C, theoretical energy is 12.5kJ, Excess 5.5kJ, the gain is 1.44 times.

■ NaH 1.0gm + MgH ₂ 1.0gm + activated carbon powder milling CAII 300 4gm + SF ₆ 0.0025mol, and the theoretical energy of about 5.5kJ, Ein: 100kJ, dE: 10kJ, the temperature rise at about 160 ℃ variation and Tmax of about At 335 ° C, the theoretical energy is 5.5 kJ and the gain is 1.8 times.

■4g CAIII-300+0.5g B+1g NaH+0.0047mol SF ₆ ; Ein: 112.0kJ; dE: 15.14kJ; TSC: 210-350°C; Tmax: 409°C, theoretical energy 10.12kJ, excess 5kJ, gain It is 1.49 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300 + 1g MgH 2 + 1.66g KH + 0.00929mol SF 6 ( after filling SF _6, the battery temperature rises to 29 ℃); Ein: 66.0kJ; dE: 26.11kJ; TSC: 37-375 ℃; Tmax: 375 ° C, theoretical energy is 20.4 kJ, and the gain is 1.28 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300 + 1g Mg + 0.33g LiH + 0.00929mol SF 6 ( after filling SF _6, the battery temperature rises to 26 ℃); Ein: 128.0kJ; dE: 32.45kJ; TSC: 275-540 ℃; Tmax : 550 ° C, the theoretical energy is 23.2 kJ, and the gain is 1.4 times.

■4g CAIII-300+1g S+1g NaH+0.0106mol SF ₆ (on line), Ein: 86.0kJ, dE: 18.1kJ, TSC: 51-313°C, Tmax: 354°C, theoretical energy 11.2kJ, gain is 1.6.

■NaH 5.0gm+MgH ₂ 5.0gm+activated carbon CAII 300 20.0gm ball mill +SF ₆ 40 PSIG (0.026mol line) (theoretical energy is about 57kJ) 2" battery, Ein: 224kJ, dE: 86kJ, temperature at 150 °C The swell and Tmax is about 350 ° C, the theoretical energy is 57 kJ, and the gain is 1.5 times.

TeO ₂

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g MgH ₂ +1g NaH+1.6g TeO ₂ ; Ein: 325.1kJ; dE: 18.46kJ; TSC: 210-440°C; Tmax: 440°C, theoretical energy is 9.67kJ, excess 8.8kJ, The gain is 1.9 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300 + 2g MgH 2 + 2g NaH + 3.2g TeO 2, Ein: 103.0kJ, dE: 31.6kJ, TSC: 185-491 ℃, Tmax: 498 ℃, theoretical energy 17.28kJ, gain is 1.83 times .

■1 吋 large capacity battery 1.6g TeO ₂ , 0.33g LiH, 1g Al powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain of 18.1kJ, but no sudden increase in temperature . The maximum battery temperature is 637 ° C, the theoretical energy is 8.66 kJ, and the gain is 2.1 times.

■ 1-inch large-capacity battery _{1.6g TeO 2, 1.66g KH, 1g} MgH 2 powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 deg.] C), an energy gain of 22.0kJ, and a sudden increase in the temperature of 233 deg.] C (316-549 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 554 ° C, the theoretical energy is 8.64 kJ, and the gain is 2.55 times.

■ 1 吋 large capacity battery 1.6g TeO ₂ , 1.66g KH, 1g Mg powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain is 20.3kJ, and the temperature suddenly increases by 274 ° C ( 268-542 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 549 ° C, the theoretical energy is 10.9 kJ, and the gain is 1.86 times.

■NaH 5.0gm+MgH ₂ powder 5.0gm+activated carbon CAII 300 20gm ball mill+TeO ₂ 8.0gm, Ein: 253kJ, dE: 77kJ, the temperature rises at 200°C and the Tmax is about 400°C, the theoretical energy is 48.35kJ, The gain is 1.6 times.

■NaH 1.0gm+MgH ₂ powder 1.0gm+activated carbon CAII 300 4.0gm ball mill+TeO ₂ 1.6gm, Ein: 110kJ, dE: 16kJ, the temperature rises at 190°C and the Tmax is about 400°C, the theoretical energy is 9.67kJ The gain is 1.65 times.

■KH 1.66gm+MgH ₂ powder 1.0gm+activated carbon CAII 300 4.0gm ball mill + TeO ₂ 1.6gm, Ein: 119kJ, dE: 19kJ, temperature rises at 340°C and Tmax is about 570°C, theoretical energy is 9.67kJ The gain is 2 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g NaH+1.6g TeO ₂ , Ein: 116.0kJ, dE: 11.0kJ, TSC: 207-352°C, Tmax: 381°C, theoretical energy 6.6kJ, gain 1.67 times.

■KH 1.66gm+MgH ₂ powder 1.0gm+TiC 4.0gm+TeO ₂ 1.6gm, Ein: 133kJ, dE: 15kJ, the temperature rises at 280°C and Tmax is about 460°C, the theoretical energy is 8.64kJ, the gain is 1.745 times.

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+1.60g TeO ₂ , experimental dE: -17.0kJ, consider the reaction: TeO ₂ (c) + 3Mg (c) + 2NaH (c) = 2MgO (c) + Na ₂ Te(c)+MgH ₂ (c)Q=-1192.7 kJ/reaction, theoretical chemical reaction energy: -11.9 kJ, excess heat: -5.1 kJ, 1.43X excess heat.

P ₂ O ₅

■1吋 large capacity battery with 1.66g KH, 2g P ₂ O ₅ and 1g MgH ₂ and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300°C) with an energy gain of 21.2kJ and a sudden increase in temperature of 242°C (299-541 ° C). The maximum temperature of the battery 549 ℃, theoretical energy 10.8kJ, excess 10.35kJ, the gain is 1.96 times 032609GC4: 031909RCWF4 / 1.66g KH + 2g P 2 O 5 + 1g MgH 2 + 4g CA III-300, in the DMF-d7 (as is), strong - 3.86 ppm peak.

■4g CAIII-300+1g MgH ₂ +1.66g KH+2g P ₂ O ₅ , Ein: 138.0kJ, dE: 21.6kJ, TSC: 320-616°C, Tmax: 616°C, theoretical energy 11.5kJ, excess 10.1 kJ, the gain is 1.9 times.

■KH 8.3gm+MgH ₂ powder 5.0gm+activated carbon CAII 300 20gm ball mill + P ₂ O ₅ 10.0gm, Ein: 272kJ, dE: 98kJ, swell at 250 ° C and Tmax is about 450 ° C, theoretical energy is 54kJ, The gain is 1.81 times.

■KH 1.66gm+MgH ₂ powder 1.0gm+activated carbon CAII 300 4gm ball mill + P ₂ O ₅ 2.0gm, Ein: 130kJ, dE: 21kJ, rises at 300°C and Tmax is about 550°C, theoretical energy is 10.8kJ The gain is 1.94 times.

■KH 1.66gm+MgH ₂ powder 1.0gm+TiC 4.0gm+P ₂ O ₅ 2.0gm, Ein: 129kJ, dE: 21kJ, the temperature rises at 270°C and Tmax is about 600°C, and the theoretical energy is 10.8kJ. The gain is 1.95 times.

NaMnO ₄

■ 4g CAIII-300 + 1g Si + 1g NaH + 3.5g NaMnO 4; Ein: 123.0kJ; dE: 26.25kJ; TSC: 45-330 ℃; Tmax: 465 ℃, theoretical energy 17.6kJ, excess 8.7kJ, gain It is 1.5 times.

■4g CAIII-300+1g Al+1g NaH+3.5g NaMnO ₄ ; Ein: 120.0kJ; dE: 32.41kJ; TSC: 44-373°C; Tmax: 433°C, theoretical energy 20.5kJ, excess 7.7kJ, gain It is 1.58 times.

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+3.5g NaMnO ₄ ; Ein: 66.0kJ; dE: 32.27kJ; TSC: 74-430°C; Tmax: 430°C, theoretical energy 17.4kJ, excess 14.9kJ, gain It is 1.85 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300 + 1g Mg + 1g NaH + 3.5g NaMnO 4, Ein: 72.0kJ, dE: 34.1kJ, TSC: 49-362 ℃, Tmax: 364 ℃, theoretical energy 17.4kJ, excess 16.7kJ, the gain It is 2 times.

■ KH 8.3gm + Mg powder 5.0gm + milled activated carbon CAII 300 20gm _{+ NaMnO 4 17.5gm, Ein: 130kJ} , dE: 160kJ, sudden temperature rise at 70 deg.] C and Tmax of about 350 ℃, the theoretical energy of 87kJ, gain 1.84 times.

■KH 8.3gm+Al powder 5.0gm+activated carbon CAII 300 20gm ball mill+NaMnO ₄ 17.5gm, Ein: 134kJ, dE: 171kJ, the temperature rises at 50°C and the Tmax is about 350°C, the theoretical energy is 102.5kJ, the gain It is 1.66 times.

■NaH 1.0gm+Mg powder 1.0gm+activated carbon CAII 300 4.0gm ball mill +NaMnO ₄ 3.5gm (theoretical energy is about 17.4kJ), Ein: 54kJ, dE: 32kJ, the temperature rises at 60°C and the Tmax is about 450. °C, the theoretical energy is 17.4kJ, and the gain is 1.8 times.

■KH 1.66gm+Mg powder 1.0gm+TiC 4.0gm+NaMnO ₄ 3.5gm, Ein: 65kJ, dE: 30kJ, temperature rises at 70°C and Tmax is about 410°C, theoretical energy is 17.4kJ, gain is 1.7 Times.

Nitrate

■ 1 inch cell 2g NaH, 3g NaNO ₃ 4g of activated carbon powder and a mixture of 1g Ti powder (dried at 300 deg.] C), an energy gain of 33.2kJ, and a sudden increase in the temperature of 418 ℃ (110-528 ℃). The maximum battery temperature is 530 ° C, the theoretical energy is 24.8 kJ, the excess is 8.4 kJ, and the gain is 1.3 times.

■ 1 吋 battery of 3g NaH, 3g NaNO ₃ and 1g Al nano powder and 4g activated carbon powder mixture (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain of 42.3kJ, and temperature spurt 384 ° C (150-534 ° C ). The maximum battery temperature is 540 ° C, the theoretical energy is 33.3 kJ, the excess is 9 kJ, and the gain is 1.27 times.

■ 1 inch cell 2.1g NaH, the mixture 3g NaNO ₃ and 1g MgH ₂ and 4g of activated carbon powder (dried at 300 deg.] C), an energy gain of 43.4kJ, and a sudden increase in the temperature of 382 ℃ (67-449 ℃) . The maximum battery temperature is 451 ° C, the theoretical energy is 28.6 kJ, the excess is 14.8 kJ, and the gain is 1.52 times.

■ 1吋 large capacity battery 0.33g LiH, 1.7g LiNO ₃ and 1g MgH ₂ and 4g of activated carbon powder mixture (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain of 40.1kJ, and temperature burst 337 ° C (92- 429 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 431 ° C, the theoretical energy is 21.6 kJ, the excess is 18.5 kJ, and the gain is 1.86 times.

■ A mixture of 0.33g LiH, 1.7g LiNO ₃ and 1g Ti and 4g activated carbon powder in a 1吋 battery (dried at 300°C) with an energy gain of 36.5kJ and a sudden increase in temperature of 319°C (83-402°C) . The maximum battery temperature is 450 ° C, the theoretical energy is 18.4 kJ, the excess is 18 kJ, and the gain is 2 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g MgH ₂ +1g NaH+2.42g LiNO ₃ ; Ein: 75.0kJ; dE: 39.01kJ; TSC: 57-492°C; Tmax: 492°C, theoretical energy 28.5kJ, excess 10.5kJ, The gain is 1.37 times.

■4g CAIII-300+1g Al+1g NaH+2.42g LiNO ₃ ; Ein: 81.2kJ; dE: 41.89kJ; TSC: 73-528°C; Tmax: 528°C, theoretical energy 34.6kJ, excess 7.3kJ, gain It is 1.21 times.

ClO ₄

■4g CAIII-300+1g MgH ₂ +2g NaClO ₄ +1g NaH; Ein: 86.0kJ; dE: 38.88kJ; TSC: 130-551°C; Tmax: 551°C, theoretical energy 30.7kJ, excess 8.2kJ, gain It is 1.27 times.

■4g CAIII-300+1g Al+1g NaH+4.29g NaClO ₄ ; Ein: 88.0kJ; dE: 58.24kJ; TSC: 119-615°C; Tmax: 615°C, theoretical energy 47.1kJ, excess 11.14kJ, gain It is 1.23 times.

■4g CAIII-300+1g MgH ₂ +1g NaH+4.29g NaClO ₄ ; Ein: 98.0kJ; dE: 56.26kJ; TSC: 113-571°C; Tmax: 571°C, theoretical energy: 36.2kJ, excess 20.1kJ, The gain is 1.55 times.

K ₂ S ₂ O ₈

■4g CAIII-300+1g MgH ₂ +1.66g KH+2.7g K ₂ S ₂ O ₈ , Ein: 121.0kJ, dE: 27.4kJ, TSC: 178-462°C, Tmax: 468°C, theoretical energy 19.6kJ With a surplus of 7.8kJ and a gain of 1.40 times.

SO ₂

■4g CAIII-300+1g MgH ₂ +1g NaH+0.0146mol SO ₂ , Ein: 58.0kJ, dE: 20.7kJ, TSC: 42-287°C, Tmax: 309°C, theoretical energy 15kJ, excess 5.7kJ, gain It is 1.38 times.

S

■ 4g CAIII-300 + 1g MgH 2 + 1g NaH + 3.2g S, Ein: 67.0kJ, dE: 22.7kJ, TSC: 49-356 ℃, Tmax: 366 ℃, theoretical energy 17.9kJ, excess 4.8kJ, gain It is 1.27 times.

■1吋 large capacity battery 1.3g S powder, 1.66g KH, 1g Si powder and 4g CA-III 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300°C), energy gain is 13.7kJ, and temperature suddenly increases by 129°C ( 66-195 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 415 ° C, the theoretical energy is 7.5 kJ, and the excess is 1.82 times.

■1 吋 large capacity battery 3.2g S powder, 0.33g LiH, 1g Al powder and 4g CA-IV 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), the energy gain is 27.1kJ, and the temperature suddenly increases by 301 ° C ( 163-464 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 484 ° C, the theoretical energy is 20.9 kJ, the excess is 6.2 kJ, and the gain is 1.3 times.

■ 1 吋 large capacity battery 3.2g S powder, 0.33g LiH, 1g Si powder and 4g CA-IV 300 activated carbon powder (dried at 300 ° C), energy gain of 17.7kJ, and temperature increase of 233 ° C ( 212-445 ° C). The maximum battery temperature is 451 ° C, the theoretical energy is 13.7 kJ, the excess is 4 kJ, and the gain is 1.3 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Si+1.66g KH+1.3g S, Ein: 81.0kJ, dE: 10.8kJ, TSC: 52-196°C, Tmax: 326°C, theoretical energy 7.4kJ, gain 1.45 times.

SnF ₄

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+1.95g SnF ₄ ; Ein: 130.2kJ; dE: 13.89kJ; TSC: 375-520°C; Tmax: 525°C, theoretical energy 9.3kJ, gain 1.5 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+1.95g SnF ₄ ; Ein: 130.2kJ; dE: 13.89kJ; TSC: 375-520°C; Tmax: 525°C, theoretical energy 9.3kJ, gain 1.5 times.

SeO ₂

■4g CAIII-300+2g MgH ₂ +2g NaH+2.2g SeO ₂ , Ein: 82.0kJ, dE: 29.5kJ, TSC: 99-388°C, Tmax: 393°C, theoretical energy 20.5kJ, gain 1.4 times .

CS ₂

■ PP vial NaH 1.0gm + (Al activated carbon powder 1.0gm + CAII 300 4gm) milling _{+ CS 2 1.2ml, Ein: 72kJ} , dE: 18kJ, sudden temperature rise at about 80 deg.] C and Tmax of about 320 ℃, theoretical energy It is 11.4kJ and the gain is 1.58 times.

■ PP in a small bottle of NaH 1.0gm + MgH ₂ powder 1.0gm + activated carbon CAII 300 4gm ball mill + CS ₂ 1.2ml, Ein: 82kJ, dE: 18kJ, the temperature rises at about 80 ° C and Tmax is about 330 ° C, theoretical energy It is 12.6kJ and the gain is 1.4 times.

CO

₂

■ 4g CAIII-300+1g MgH ₂ +1g NaH+0.00953mol CO ₂ (battery temperature rises to 45°C after filling with CO ₂ ; Ein: 188.4kJ; dE: 10.37kJ; TSC: 80-120C; Tmax: At 508 ° C, the theoretical energy is 6.3 kJ and the gain is 1.65 times.

PF

₅

■4g CAIII-300+1g Al+1g NaH+0.010mol PF ₅ ; Ein: 127.0kJ; dE: 15.65kJ; TSC: 210-371°C; Tmax: 371°C, theoretical energy 10kJ, excess 6.45kJ, gain 1.57 times.

■ 4g CAIII-300 + 1g Al + 1g NaH + 0.01mol PF 5, Ein: 101.0kJ, dE: 15.7kJ, TSC: 178-370 ℃, Tmax: 391 ℃, the theoretical energy of 10kJ, a gain of 1.57 times.

NF

₃

■ NaH 1.0gm + (Mg activated carbon powder 1.0gm + CAII-300 4gm) milling + NF ₃ 0.011mol, and the theoretical energy of about kJ, Ein: 136kJ, dE: 28kJ, Tmax and sudden temperature rise at 70 deg.] C to about 470 °C, the theoretical energy is 19.6kJ, and the gain is 1.4 times.

PCl ₅

■4g CAIII-300+1g MgH ₂ +2.08g PCl ₅ +1g NaH; Ein: 90.0kJ; dE: 20.29kJ; TSC: 180-379°C; Tmax: 391°C, theoretical energy 13.92kJ, gain 1.45 times .

P ₂ S ₅

■4g CAIII-300+1g MgH ₂ +1g NaH+2.22g P ₂ S ₅ ; Ein: 105.0kJ; dE: 13.79kJ; TSC: 150-363°C; Tmax: 398°C, theoretical energy: 10.5kJ, excess 3.3 kJ, the gain is 1.3 times.

■NaH 1.0gm+Al powder 1.0gm+activated carbon CAII 300 4gm ball mill+P ₂ S ₅ 2.22gm, Ein: 110kJ, dE: 14kJ, the temperature rises at about 170°C and the Tmax is about 425°C, the theoretical energy is 10.1. kJ, the gain is 1.39 times.

Oxide

■ 4 g AC + 1 g MgH ₂ + 1.66 g KH + 1.35 g KO ₂ , Ein: 86.0 kJ, dE: 21.0 kJ, TSC: 157-408 ° C, Tmax: 416 ° C, theoretical energy: 15.4 kJ, gain 1.36 times.

MnO ₄

■4g CAIII-300+1g Mg+1g NaH+3.5g MnO ₂ ; Ein: 108.0kJ; dE: 22.11kJ; TSC: 170-498°C; Tmax: 498°C, theoretical energy 18.4kJ, excess 3.7kJ, gain It is 1.2 times.

N ₂ O

■ 4g Pt / C + 1g Mg + 1g NaH + 0.0198mol N 2 O, Ein: 72.0kJ, dE: 22.2kJ, TSC: 73-346 ℃, Tmax: 361 ℃, theoretical energy 16.2kJ, the gain is 1.37 times .

HFB

■NaH 1.0 gm+ (aluminum nanopowder 1 gm + activated carbon (AC) 5 gm) ball mill + HFB 1 ml, Ein: 108 kJ, dE 35 kJ, and the temperature was suddenly increased by 450 ° C at 90 ° C.

■NaH 1.0 gm+ (La 5 gm + activated carbon 5 gm) ball mill + hexafluorobenzene 1 ml, Ein: 109 kJ, dE: 38 kJ, and the temperature was suddenly increased by 400 ° C at 90 ° C.

■ (4 g activated carbon (AC) + 1 g MgH ₂ ) ball mill + 1 ml HFB + 1 g NaH, Ein: 150.0 kJ, dE: 45.1 kJ, TSC: about 50-240, Tmax is about 250 °C.

■ Blend (4g AC+1g MgH ₂ )+1ml HFB+1g NaH, Ein: 150.0kJ, dE: 35.0kJ, TSC: 54-255°C, 45-241°C, 48-199°C; Tmax: 258°C , 247 ° C, 206 ° C (three series battery).

■1.6 g of KH, 1 ml of hexadecafluoroheptane (HDFH) and a mixture of 4 g of activated carbon powder and 1 g of MgH ₂ in a battery, dE: 34.3 kJ, and a sudden increase of 419 ° C (145-564 ° C), Tmax is About 575 ° C.

B. Solution NMR

A representative reaction mixture for forming low energy hydrogen comprises: (i) at least one catalyst, such as one selected from the group consisting of LiH , KH, and NaH ; (ii) at least one oxidizing agent, such as selected from the group consisting of NiBr ₂ , MnI ₂ , AgCl , Eu Br ₂ , SF ₆ , S , CF ₄ , NF ₃ , LiNO ₃ , one of M ₂ S ₂ O ₈ and P ₂ P ₅ having Ag ; (iii) at least one reducing agent such as selected from Mg powder or MgH ₂ And one of Al powder or aluminum nano powder ( Al NP), Sr and Ca ; and (iv) at least one carrier such as one selected from the group consisting of AC and TiC. 50mg of the reaction mixture was added to the reaction product of a sealing glass vial TEFLON ^TM valve 1.5ml deuterated N, N- dimethylformamide _{-d7 (DCON (CD 3) 2} , DMF-d7 (99.5% Cambridge Isotope In Laboratories, Inc.)), it was agitated and allowed to dissolve in a glove box under an argon atmosphere over a period of 12 hours. The solution lacking any solids was transferred to an NMR tube (5 mm OD, 23 cm long, Wilmad) by means of a gas-tight connection, followed by flame sealing of the tube. NMR spectra were recorded on a 氘-locked 500 MHz Bruker NMR spectrometer. The chemical shift is referenced at a solvent frequency such as DMF-d7 relative to tetramethyl decane (TMS) 8.03 ppm.

A low energy hydrino hydride H ^- (1/4) was predicted to be observed at about -3.66 ppm relative to TMS, and a molecular low energy hydrogen H ₂ (1/4) was predicted to be observed at 1.25 ppm relative to TMS. The position and intensity of these peaks for a particular reaction mixture are given by displacement in Table 4.

Table 4. 1H solution NMR after DMF-d7 solvent extraction of the product of a non-homogeneous low energy hydrogen catalyst system comprising: (i) a catalyst such as LiH, KH or NaH; (ii) a reducing agent such as Al, Al NP, Mg or MgH ₂ ; and (iii) an oxidizing agent such as CF ₄ , N ₂ O, NF ₃ , K ₂ S ₂ O ₈ , FeSO ₄ , O ₂ , LiNO ₃ , P ₂ O ₅ , SF ₆ , S, _{CS 2, NiBr 2, TeO 2} , NaMnO 4, SnF 4 and SnI _4, AC carrier or Pt / C mixed with the (iv), such as.

5. . . a reactor for generating hydrogen catalyst energy and lower energy hydrogen species

10. . . boiler

11. . . Fuel reaction mixture

12. . . Hydrogen source

13. . . Steam pipe and steam generator

14. . . Turbine

16. . . Water condenser

17. . . Water supply source

18. . . Fuel recycler

19. . . Hydrogen-two low energy hydrogen gas separator

twenty one. . . Splitter

twenty two. . . Shift or cyclone separator

twenty three. . . Magnetic separator

twenty four. . . Differential product dissolution or suspension system

25. . . Component solvent wash

26. . . Compound recovery system

27. . . Solvent evaporator / evaporator

28. . . Compound collector

29. . . Precipitator

30. . . Compound dryer and collector

31. . . Electrolyzer

32. . . Volatile gas collector

33. . . Metal collector

34. . . Metal distiller or separator

35. . . Hydrogenation reactor

36. . . Power reactor / battery

37. . . Inlet and outlet for metals and hydrides

38. . . Entrance for hydrogen supply

39. . . valve

40. . . Hydrogen supply

41. . . Air outlet

42. . . valve

43. . . Pump

44. . . Heater

45. . . Pressure and temperature meter

46. . . Halogenation reactor

47. . . battery

48. . . An inlet for carbon supply and an outlet for halogenated products

49. . . Entrance for fluorine gas

50. . . valve

51. . . Halogen gas supply

52. . . Air outlet

53. . . valve

54. . . Pump

55. . . Heater

56. . . Pressure and temperature meter

57. . . metal

58. . . mixer

61. . . Catalyst supply channel

62. . . Supply channel

70. . . Hydrogen catalyst reactor / energy reactor

72. . . container

74. . . Energy reaction mixture

76. . . Source/energy release substance

78. . . Catalyst/catalytic substance

80. . . Heat exchanger/exchanger

82. . . Steam generator

90. . . Turbine

100. . . generator

110. . . load

200. . . Chamber / Reaction Chamber / Internal Reaction Chamber / Container / Battery

206. . . Selection valve

207. . . Reaction vessel

221. . . Hydrogen source

222. . . Controller

223. . . Pressure sensor

225. . . power supply

230. . . Temperature control unit / heater / heating coil

232. . . Control valve

233. . . connection

241. . . Catalyst supply channel

242. . . Hydrogen supply channel

250. . . Catalyst source

255. . . Gas collector or collector

256. . . Vacuum pump

257. . . Vacuum line

260. . . Reactant

272. . . power supply

280. . . Hot filament

285. . . power supply

290. . . External hydrogen reservoir

291. . . Separating the walls of the two chambers

295. . . Catalyst reservoir

298. . . Catalyst reservoir heater

300. . . Chamber/battery chamber/reaction chamber/internal reaction chamber

301. . . Selective ventilation valve

305. . . Cathode/electrode

307. . . Gas discharge battery

313. . . Separating the walls of the two chambers

315. . . Glow discharge vacuum vessel filled with hydrogen

320. . . anode

322. . . Hydrogen source

325. . . Control valve

330. . . Voltage and current source

341. . . Catalyst supply channel

342. . . Oxygen supply channel

350. . . Gaseous catalyst

372. . . power supply

380. . . Heating coil/heater

385. . . power supply

390. . . External hydrogen reservoir

392. . . Catalyst reservoir heater

395. . . Catalyst reservoir

400. . . Fuel cell and battery pack

401. . . Cathode chamber

402. . . Anode chamber

405. . . cathode

410. . . anode

420. . . Salt bridge

430. . . Reagent source or reservoir for storing products

431. . . Reagent source or reservoir for storing products

460. . . aisle

461. . . aisle

Figure 1 is a schematic illustration of an energy reactor and power plant in accordance with the present invention;

Figure 2 is a schematic illustration of an energy reactor and power plant for recycling or regenerating fuel in accordance with the present invention;

Figure 3 is a schematic illustration of a power reactor in accordance with the present invention;

Figure 4 is a schematic illustration of a system for recycling or regenerating fuel in accordance with the present invention;

Figure 5 is a schematic view of a discharge power source and a plasma battery and a reactor according to the present invention;

Figure 6 is a schematic illustration of a battery pack and a fuel cell in accordance with the present invention.

61. . . Catalyst supply channel

62. . . Supply channel

70. . . Hydrogen catalyst reactor / energy reactor

72. . . container

74. . . Energy reaction mixture/mixture

76. . . Source/energy release substance

78. . . Catalyst/catalytic substance

80. . . Heat exchanger/exchanger

82. . . Steam generator

90. . . Turbine

100. . . generator

110. . . load

Claims (24)

A power system comprising: a reaction battery for catalyzing the formation of a hydrogen substance having a lower total energy and a more stable total energy than an uncatalyzed hydrogen substance and a composition comprising the same; a reaction vessel; a vacuum pump; An atomic hydrogen source from a source in communication with the reaction vessel; a hydrogen catalyst source in communication with the reaction vessel; a source of at least one of the atomic hydrogen source and the hydrogen catalyst source comprising one or more hydrogen atoms forming a reaction mixture of at least one element of the hydrogen catalyst and at least one reactant of at least one other element, whereby at least one of the atomic hydrogen and the hydrogen catalyst is formed from the source, at least one other reactant, Causing the catalysis by performing at least one of activation and expansion catalysis; and a heater for the vessel, which initiates formation of at least one of the atomic hydrogen and the hydrogen catalyst in the reaction vessel, and initiates the Reacting to cause catalysis whereby the catalysis of atomic hydrogen during the hydrogen atom catalysis releases more than about 300 kJ of energy per mole of hydrogen, which causes the reminder The reaction comprises a reaction selected from the group of: (i) an exothermic reaction, which provides the activation energy for the catalytic reaction; (ii) the coupling reaction, a catalyst which provides a source or sources of atomic hydrogen to maintain at least one of the catalytic reaction; (iii) a free radical reaction which acts as a acceptor for electrons from the catalyst during the catalytic reaction; (iv) a redox reaction which acts as a acceptor for electrons from the catalyst during the catalytic reaction; (v) exchange a reaction that promotes ionization of the catalyst to form the hydrogen species as the catalyst receives energy from atomic hydrogen; and (vi) a getter, carrier or matrix assisted catalytic reaction. The power system of claim 1, wherein the reaction mixture comprises a conductive support that initiates the catalytic reaction. The power system of claim 1, wherein the reaction mixture comprises a solid, liquid or non-homogeneous catalytic reaction mixture. The power system of claim 1, wherein the reaction mixture comprising a redox reaction to cause the catalytic reaction comprises: (i) at least one catalyst selected from the group consisting of Li, LiH , K , KH , NaH , Rb, RbH, Cs, and CsH (ii) hydrogen, a hydrogen source or a hydride; (iii) at least one oxidizing agent selected from the group consisting of metal compounds including halides, phosphides, borides, oxides, hydroxides, tellurides, nitrides, arsenic Compound, selenide, telluride, telluride, carbide, sulfide, hydride, carbonate, bicarbonate, sulfate, hydrogen sulfate, phosphate, hydrogen phosphate, dihydrogen phosphate, nitrate, sub Nitrate, permanganate, chlorate, perchlorate, chlorite, perchlorate, hypochlorite, bromate, perbromate, bromate, perbromine Acid salt, iodate, periodate, iodate, periodate, chromate, dichromate, citrate, selenate, arsenate, citrate, borate , cobalt oxide, cerium oxide, and halogen, P, B, Si, N, As, S, Te, Sb, C, S, P, Mn, Cr, Co And Te oxyanions; transition metals, Sn, Ga, In, lead, bismuth, alkali metal and alkaline earth metal compounds; GeF ₂ , GeCl ₂ , GeBr ₂ , GeI ₂ , GeO, GeP, GeS, GeI ₄ and GeCl ₄ ; Fluorocarbon, CF ₄ , ClCF ₃ ; chlorocarbon, CCl ₄ ; O ₂ ; MNO ₃ ; MClO ₄ ; MO ₂ ; NF ₃ ; N ₂ O ; NO; NO ₂ ; boron-nitrogen compound, such as B ₃ N ₃ H ₆ ; sulfur-containing compounds such as SF ₆ , S , SO ₂ , SO ₃ , S ₂ O ₅ Cl ₂ , F ₅ SOF, M ₂ S ₂ O ₈ , S _x X _y (such as S ₂ Cl ₂ , SCl ₂ , S ₂ Br ₂ or S ₂ F ₂ ), CS ₂ , SO _x X _y (SOCl ₂ , SOF ₂ , SO ₂ F ₂ , SOBr ₂ ); X _x X' _y , ClF ₅ ; X _x X' _y O _z , ClO ₂ F, ClO ₂ F ₂ , ClOF ₃ , ClO ₃ F, ClO ₂ F ₃ ; boron-nitrogen compound, B ₃ N ₃ H ₆ ; Se; Te; Bi; As; Sb; Bi; TeX _{x , TeF 4, TeF 6; TeO} x, TeO 2, TeO 3; SeX x, SeF 6; SeO x, SeO 2 or SeO _3; tellurium oxides, halides, tellurium _{compounds, TeO 2, TeO 3, Te} (OH _{) 6, TeBr 2, TeCl 2} , TeBr 4, TeCl 4, TeF 4, TeI 4, TeF 6, CoTe or NITE; selenium compound, selenium oxide Selenium halides, selenium _{sulfide, SeO 2, SeO 3, Se} 2 Br 2, Se 2 Cl 2, SeBr 4, SeCl 4, SeF 4, SeF 6, SeOBr 2, SeOCl 2, SeOF 2, SeO 2 F 2, SeS ₂ , Se ₂ S ₆ , Se ₄ S ₄ or Se ₆ S ₂ ; P; P ₂ O ₅ ; P ₂ S ₅ ; P _x X _y , PF ₃ , PCl ₃ , PBr ₃ , PI ₃ , PF ₅ , PCl ₅ , PBr ₄ F, PCl ₄ F; PO _x X _y , POBr ₃ , POI ₃ , POCl ₃ or POF ₃ ; PS _x X _y ( M is an alkali metal, x, y and z are integers, X and X' Is halogen), PSBr ₃ , PSF ₃ , PSCl ₃ ; phosphorus-nitrogen compound, P ₃ N ₅ , (Cl ₂ PN) ₃ , (Cl ₂ PN) ₄ , (Br ₂ PN) _x ; arsenic compound, arsenic oxide , arsenic halides, arsenic sulfides, arsenic selenides, arsenic tellurides, AlAs, As ₂ I ₄ , As ₂ Se, As ₄ S ₄ , AsBr ₃ , AsCl ₃ , AsF ₃ , AsI ₃ , As ₂ O ₃ , As ₂ Se ₃ , As ₂ S ₃ , As ₂ Te ₃ , AsCl ₅ , AsF ₅ , As ₂ O ₅ , As ₂ Se ₅ , As ₂ S ₅ ; antimony compound, antimony oxide, antimony halide, antimony sulfide , barium sulfate, barium selenide, barium arsenide, SbAs, SbBr ₃ , SbCl ₃ , SbF ₃ , SbI ₃ , Sb ₂ O ₃ , SbOCl, Sb ₂ Se ₃ , Sb ₂ (SO ₄ ) ₃ , Sb ₂ S ₃ , Sb ₂ Te ₃ , Sb ₂ O ₄ , SbCl ₅ , SbF ₅ , SbCl ₂ F ₃ , Sb ₂ O ₅ , Sb ₂ S ₅ ; antimony compound, antimony oxide, antimony halide, antimony sulfide , bismuth selenide, BiAsO ₄ , BiBr ₃ , BiCl ₃ , BiF ₃ , BiF ₅ , Bi(OH) ₃ , BiI ₃ , Bi ₂ O ₃ , BiOBr, BiOCl, BiOI, Bi ₂ Se ₃ , Bi ₂ S _{3 , Bi 2 Te 3, Bi 2} O 4; SiCl 4, SiBr 4; a transition metal _{halide, CrCl 3, ZnF 2, ZnBr} 2, ZnI 2, MnCl 2, MnBr 2, MnI 2, CoBr 2, CoI 2, CoCl ₂ , NiCl ₂ , NiBr ₂ , NiF ₂ , FeF ₂ , FeCl ₂ , FeBr ₂ , FeCl ₃ , TiF ₃ , CuBr, CuBr ₂ , VF ₃ , CuCl ₂ ; metal halides, SnF ₂ , SnCl ₂ , SnBr ₂ , _{SuI 2, SnF 4, SnCl 4} , SnBr 4, SnI 4, InF, InCl, InBr, InI, AgCl, AgI, AlF 3, AlBr 3, AlI 3, YF 3, CdCl 2, CdBr 2, CdI 2, InCl 3 _{, ZrCl 4, NbF 5, TaCl} 5, MoCl 3, MoCl 5, NbCl 5, AsCl 3, TiBr 4, SeCl 2, SeCl 4, InF 3, InCl 3, PbF 4, TeI 4, WCl 6, OsCl 3, GaCl _{3, PtCl 3, ReCl 3,} RhCl 3, RuCl 3; metal Compounds, metal _{hydroxides, Y 2 O 3, FeO,} Fe 2 O 3 or _{NbO, NiO, Ni 2 O 3} , SnO, SnO 2, Ag 2 O, AgO, Ga 2 O, As 2 O 3, SeO 2 , TeO ₂ , In(OH) ₃ , Sn(OH) ₂ , In(OH) ₃ , Ga(OH) ₃ , Bi(OH) ₃ ; CO ₂ ; As ₂ Se ₃ ; SF ₆ ; S; SbF ₃ ; CF ₄ ; NF ₃ ; metal permanganate, KMnO ₄ , NaMnO ₄ ; P ₂ O ₅ ; metal nitrate, LiNO ₃ , NaNO ₃ , KNO ₃ ; boron halide, BBr ₃ , BI ₃ ; , indium halide, InBr ₂ , InCl ₂ , InI ₃ ; silver halide, AgCl, AgI; lead halide; cadmium halide; zirconium halide; transition metal oxide, transition metal sulfide or transition metal halide (Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu or Zn with F, Cl, Br or I); second or third transition series halide YF ₃ , second or third transition series oxide, second or third Transition series sulfides Y ₂ S ₃ , Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ag, Cd, Hf, Ta, W, Os halides, such as NbX ₃ , NbX ₅ or TaX ₅ ; Li ₂ S, ZnS, FeS, NiS, MnS, Cu ₂ S, CuS, SnS; alkaline earth metal halides, BaBr ₂ , BaCl ₂ , BaI ₂ , SrBr _{2 , SrI 2, CaBr 2, CaI} 2, MgBr 2 or MgI _2; rare earth metal _{halides, EuBr 3, LaF 3, LaBr} 3, CeBr 3, GdF 3, GdBr 3; a rare earth metal is in the state of the halide II, CeI _{2, EuF 2, EuCl 2,} EuBr 2, EuI 2, DyI 2, NdI 2, SmI 2, YbI 2 and TmI _2; metal boride, europium boride; MB _{2 boride, CrB 2, TiB 2, MgB} 2 , ZrB ₂ , GdB ₂ ; alkali metal halides, LiCl, RbCl or CsI; metal phosphides such as Ca ₃ P ₂ ; noble metal halides, noble metal oxides, noble metal sulfides, PtCl ₂ , PtBr ₂ , PtI ₂ , PtCl ₄ , PdCl ₂ , PbBr ₂ , PbI ₂ ; rare earth metal sulfide CeS; La halide; Gd halide; metal and anion, Na ₂ TeO ₄ , Na ₂ TeO ₃ , Co(CN) ₂ , CoSb, CoAs, Co ₂ P, CoO, CoSe, CoTe, NiSb, NiAs, NiSe, Ni ₂ Si, MgSe; rare earth metal telluride, EuTe; rare earth metal selenide, EuSe; rare earth metal nitride, EuN; metal nitride, AlN, GdN, Mg ₃ N ₂ ; a compound containing at least two atoms selected from oxygen atoms and different halogen atoms, F ₂ O, Cl ₂ O, ClO ₂ , Cl ₂ O ₆ , Cl ₂ O ₇ , ClF, ClF ₃ , ClOF ₃ , ClF ₅ , ClO ₂ F, ClO ₂ F ₃ , ClO ₃ F, BrF ₃ , BrF ₅ , I ₂ O ₅ , IBr, ICl, ICl ₃ , IF , IF ₃ , IF ₅ , IF ₇ ; metal second or third transition series halides, OsF ₆ , PtF ₆ or IrF ₆ ; compounds capable of forming metals after reduction, metal hydrides, rare earth metal hydrides, alkaline earth metals a hydride or an alkali metal hydride; (iv) at least one reducing agent selected from the group consisting of metals, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, second and third series of transition metals and rare earth metals, Al , Mg , MgH ₂ , Si , La, B, Zr and Ti powders; and H ₂ ; and (v) at least one selected from the group consisting of AC, 1% Pt/carbon or Pd/carbon (Pt/C, Pd/C), carbide TiC and WC Conductive carrier. The power system of claim 1, wherein the reaction mixture comprising a redox reaction to cause the catalytic reaction comprises: (i) at least one catalyst or catalyst source comprising a metal or hydride from a Group I element; (ii) At least one hydrogen source comprising hydrogen or a hydrogen source or hydride; (iii) at least one oxidant comprising at least one member from Group 13, Group 14, Group 15, Group 16, and Group 17 and selected from the group consisting of An atom or ion or compound of an element of F, Cl, Br, I, B, C, N, O, Al, Si, P, S, Se, and Te; (iv) at least one reducing agent comprising a substance selected from the group consisting of Mg, An element or hydride of MgH ₂ , Al, Si, B, Zr and a rare earth metal; and (v) at least one electrically conductive support selected from the group consisting of carbon, AC, graphene, metal impregnated carbon Pt/C or Pd/ C, carbide TiC and WC. The power system of claim 1, wherein the reaction mixture comprising a redox reaction to cause the catalytic reaction comprises: (i) at least one catalyst or catalyst source comprising a metal or hydride from a Group I element; At least one hydrogen source comprising hydrogen or a hydrogen source or hydride; (iii) at least one oxidant comprising a group selected from Group IA, Group IIA, Group 3d, Group 4d, Group 5d, Group 6d a halide, an oxide or a sulfide of an element of Group 7d, Group 8d, Group 9d, Group 10d, Group 11d, Group 12d and a lanthanide element; (iv) at least one reducing agent comprising An element or hydride selected from the group consisting of Mg, MgH ₂ , Al, Si, B, Zr, and a rare earth metal; and (v) at least one electrically conductive support selected from the group consisting of carbon, AC, graphene, such as Pt/C or Pd/ C is impregnated with metal carbon, carbide TiC and WC. The power system of claim 1, wherein the exchange reaction causing the catalytic reaction comprises anion exchange between the oxidant, the reducing agent, and at least two of the catalysts, wherein the anion is selected from the group consisting of halides, hydrogen ions, Oxygen ions, sulfur ions, nitrogen ions, boron ions, carbon ions, barium ions, arsenic ions, selenium ions, barium ions, phosphorus ions, nitrates, hydrogen sulfide, carbonates, sulfates, hydrogen sulfate, phosphates, Hydrogen phosphate, Dihydrogen phosphate, perchlorate, chromate, dichromate, cobaltate and oxyanion. The power system of claim 7, wherein the exchange reaction that causes the catalysis is thermally reversible to regenerate the initial exchange reactants. The power system of claim 8, wherein the thermally regenerated reactants comprise (i) at least one catalyst or catalyst source selected from the group consisting of NaH and KH; (ii) a hydrogen source selected from the group consisting of NaH, KH, and MgH ₂ ; At least one oxidizing agent selected from the group consisting of (a) an alkaline earth metal halide selected from the group consisting of BaBr ₂ , BaCl ₂ , BaI ₂ , CaBr ₂ , MgBr ₂ and MgI ₂ ; (b) selected from the group consisting of EuBr ₂ , EuBr ₃ , EuF ₃ , a rare earth metal halide of DyI ₂ , LaF ₃ and GdF ₃ ; (c) a second or third series of transition metal halides selected from the group consisting of YF ₃ ; (d) a metal boride selected from the group consisting of CrB ₂ and TiB ₂ ; An alkali metal halide selected from the group consisting of LiCl, RbCl and CsI; (f) a metal sulfide selected from the group consisting of Li ₂ S, ZnS and Y ₂ S ₃ ; (h) a metal oxide selected from the group consisting of Y ₂ O ₃ ; i) a metal phosphide selected from the group consisting of Ca ₃ P ₂ ; (iv) at least one reducing agent selected from the group consisting of Mg and MgH ₂ ; and (v) at least one carrier selected from the group consisting of AC, TiC and WC. The kinetic system of claim 1, wherein the getter, carrier or matrix-assisted catalytic reaction that causes the catalytic reaction comprises a catalytic reaction that provides at least one chemical environment for the catalytic reaction to transfer electrons to promote H catalyst function. , undergoing reversible phase transitions or other physical changes or their electricity A substate change, and a catalytic reaction that combines the hydrogen species product to increase at least one of the extent or rate of the catalytic reaction. The power system of claim 10, wherein the getter, carrier or matrix assisted catalytic reaction is thermally reversed to regenerate the initial exchange reactants. The power system of claim 11, wherein the getter, carrier or matrix-assisted catalytic reaction mixture comprises (i) at least one catalyst or catalyst source selected from the group consisting of NaH and KH; (ii) selected from the group consisting of NaH, KH and MgH ₂ the source of hydrogen; (iii) at least one of an oxidizing agent selected from: (a) a metal selected from Mg ₃ As ₂ of arsenide; and (b) is selected from Mg ₃ N ₂ and the metal nitride AlN; (iv) at least one selected from Mg and MgH ₂ of a reducing agent; and (v) at least one selected AC, TiC, and WC of the carrier. The power system of claim 1, wherein the reaction mixture that causes the catalytic reaction and comprises an alkali metal-containing catalyst is regenerated from the products by separating one or more of the components and regenerating the alkali metal by electrolysis. A hydride reactor comprising: a reaction cell for catalyzing a hydrogen atom having a total energy lower than a total energy of an uncatalyzed hydrogen substance and being more stable; and a composition comprising the hydrogen substance; a reaction vessel; a vacuum pump; an atomic hydrogen source from a source in communication with the reaction vessel; a hydrogen catalyst source in communication with the reaction vessel; a source of at least one of the atomic hydrogen source and the hydrogen catalyst source comprising a reaction mixture comprising one or more at least one reactant that forms an element of the atomic hydrogen and at least one of the hydrogen catalyst and at least one other element, Thereby at least one of the atomic hydrogen and the hydrogen catalyst is formed from the source, the at least one other reactant causing the catalysis by performing at least one of activation and expansion catalysis; and heating for the vessel Forming at least one of the atomic hydrogen and the hydrogen catalyst in the reaction vessel, and initiating the reaction to cause catalysis, whereby the atomic hydrogen catalysis releases more hydrogen per mole than during the hydrogen atom catalysis An amount of energy of about 300kJ. The hydride reactor of claim 14, wherein the reaction mixture for synthesizing the compounds comprises at least two materials selected from the group consisting of components (i) to (v): (i) a catalyst, (ii) a hydrogen source, (iii) an oxidizing agent, (iv) a reducing agent, and (v) a carrier. The hydride reactor of claim 15 wherein the oxidant is selected from the group consisting of sulfur; phosphorus; oxygen, SF ₆ , S , SO ₂ , SO ₃ , S ₂ O ₅ Cl ₂ , F ₅ SOF, M ₂ S ₂ O ₈ , S _x X _y , S ₂ Cl ₂ , SCl ₂ , S ₂ Br ₂ , S ₂ F ₂ , CS ₂ , Sb ₂ S ₅ , SO _x X _y , SOCl ₂ , SOF ₂ , SO ₂ F ₂ , SOBr ₂ , P, P ₂ O ₅ , P ₂ S ₅ , P _x X _y , PF ₃ , PCl ₃ , PBr ₃ , PI ₃ , PF ₅ , PCl ₅ , PBr ₄ F, PCl ₄ F, PO _x X _y , POBr ₃ , POI ₃ , POCl ₃ , POF ₃ , PS _x X _y , PSBr ₃ , PSF ₃ , PSCl ₃ ; phosphorus-nitrogen compound P ₃ N ₅ , (Cl ₂ PN) ₃ or (Cl ₂ PN) ₄ , (Br ₂ PN) _x ( M is an alkali metal, x and y are integers, X is a halogen); O ₂ , N ₂ O and TeO ₂ ; halides, CF ₄ , NF ₃ , CrF ₂ ; phosphorus source, sulfur source, MgS , MHS ( M is an alkali metal). The hydride reactor of claim 16, wherein the reaction mixture further comprises a getter selected from the group consisting of the elements S, P, O, Se, and Te, and comprising S, P, O, Compounds of Se and Te. The power system of claim 1, wherein the catalyst is capable of accepting about 27.2 eV ± 0.5 eV from atomic hydrogen The energy of an integer unit of one of eV ± 0.5eV. The power system of claim 1, wherein the catalyst comprises an atom or an ion M, wherein t electrons are each ionized from the atom or ion M to a continuous energy level such that the sum of the ionization energies of the t electrons is about m ̇ 27.2 eV and m ˙ One of eVs , where m is an integer. The power system of claim 1, wherein the catalyst comprises a diatomic molecule MH, wherein the MH bond is broken and t electrons are each ionized from the atom M to a continuous energy level such that the bond can ionize with the t electrons. The sum is about m × 27.2 eV and m ̇ One of eVs , where m is an integer. The power system of claim 1, wherein the catalyst comprises a molecule selected from the group consisting of molecules AlH, BiH, ClH, CoH, GeH, InH, NaH, RuH, SbH, SeH, SiH, SnH, C ₂ , N ₂ , O ₂ , CO ₂ , NO ₂ and NO ₃ and atoms or ions Li, Be, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Kr, Rb, Sr, Nb, Mo, Pd, Sn, Te, Cs, Ce, Pr, Sm, Gd, Dy, Pb, Pt, Kr, 2 K ⁺ , He ⁺ , Ti ²⁺ , Na ⁺ , Rb ⁺ , Sr ⁺ , Fe ³⁺ , Mo ² The atoms, ions and/or molecules of ⁺ , Mo ⁴⁺ , In ³⁺ , He ⁺ , Ar ⁺ , Xe ⁺ , Ar ²⁺ and H ⁺ and Ne ⁺ and H ⁺ . The power system of claim 1 is operated continuously by synchronizing the power generation with regeneration using an electrolysis or thermal regeneration reaction. The power system of claim 1, further comprising a power converter. The power system of claim 23, wherein the converter includes a steam generator in communication with the reaction vessel, a steam turbine in communication with the steam generator, and a generator in communication with the steam turbine.